The Universities and the Printing with Movable Types

1. The Universities and the Printing with Movable Types The period between the end of Western Roman Empire and the emergence of medieval Europe from500 to 1000 has been called dark ages. A period of Barbarism..buts this period was also the flowering of Byzantine Empire.. Constantine the Great was the emperor of Western and Eastern Roman empire in 324. He chose a new Capital, Byzantiun which he called Constantinople… Imperial Library..composing collection of Greek and Latin works and in later years Christian and Pagan works University of Constantinople, Which was founded by Theodosius II, a serious scholar and an ardent book collector. Ecclesiastical Library and monastic collection were also established widely. Prophet Mohammed(570-632) and his followers, towards the end of 6th century bent upon world conquest and begun raiding Byzantine empire, Syria, babylonia, Mesopotamia, Persia and Egypt.Spread like wildfire both by sword and persuasion. Good thing in this period though Arab invaders fail to conquer Constantinoplelater on instead they compete Constantinople in terms of study and production of secular literature.

2. Bagdad had became the center for the study of Greek works who has introduce the works of Aristotle’s logic ..Physicians and scholars gathered in the city to study and translate Greek medical, scientific and philosophical works into Arabic, Syria or Aramaic. • Abbasid Al-Mamum, who established in 830 the “House of Wisdom”. • Byzantine Empire and Arab trade, travel between though in hostility were not interrupted instead had tremendously progressed, and teaching of medicine, mathematics and natural science as well as works of Aristotle, Hippocrates and Galen flourished.

3. Beverley Grammar School, The oldest secular, state run school, was founded in 700 and survived many years of Viking occupation. • Benedict Biscop, 8th century foundation of Wearmouth and Jarrow in Northhumbria, became the center of a “Briliant Christian Culture” • Boniface, 8th century, founded Fulda the center of Learning and literature in Germany • Irish with Anglo-Saxon, 8th century were chief transmitter and preservers of learning in the west and “decisive cultural factor throughout the territory of the future Carolingian Empire” • Carolingian Renaissance, the revival of learning w/c was sponsored by Charlemagne and inspired and directed by Alcuin

4. Alcuin (735-804) -- Charlemagne’s head scholar –master of school at York in Northumbria and head of the Palace School in Aachen, is one of the few names that come down to us from this period • Charlemagne (768-814) provided a political unity in the form of the Frankish Empire, and the Pope a religious unity, and a new era slowly began. Eventually, the Church took over Europe, and the Pope replaced the emperor as the most important figure. By 1200, the Church would own a third of the land area of Europe! • Scriptoria, copying of manuscript have a great contribution of the circulation of copied manuscript which survived the scholarship, literature and monastic work from the fire disaster.

5. The Crusades, 1078 started at the time when Jerusalem had been captured from the ruling Seljuk Turk and , brought goods and money circulation and created new activityand enterprises, as result towns grew up around castles and monasteries that led to rise of Universities. THE UNIVERSITIES • The earliest universities to develop were in Italy. These were at Salerno (1) in the course of the ninth century, and Bologna (2) in the eleventh century. University of Bologna, The first European university appeared in Bologna, Italy The first university to receive a papal charter, in 1088, obtained complete immunity from civil jurisdiction in 1317 • University of Paris, In northern Europe, became the first recognized university.The University of Paris received its charter in 1150.

6. Oxford was recognized in 1167, though teaching began in 1096.The University of Oxford, in England,8. University of Oxford apparently came into existence around 1096, with 60 to 100 students assembled round the Augustinian canons of the Priory of St Frideswide. The first reference to Oxford as a studium generaledid not however occur until 1163 The degree of doctor of music was introduced in Oxford in 1515 ,A migration of scholars from Oxford in 1209 led to the establishment of Cambridge University. • University of Cambridge was created c.1209, at first its growth was relatively slow and it was only recognised as a studium generale by Bull of Pope John XXII in 1318. The degree of doctor of music was in Cambridge in 1463. • Universities of New Zealand Despite the great influence of Oxford and Cambridge on intellectual life, the traditions of universities in New Zealand owes at least as much to the Scottish and provincial civic university model. Indeed the oldest university in this country was that of Otago, created by the Province of Otago, rather than the central Government. However, in 1870 Parliament passed legislation to create the University of New Zealand in the fifteenth century

7. There were over seventy universities founded in Europe during the Middle Ages. In the Late Middle Ages, kings, popes, and princes vied to found new universities. By the end of the Middle Ages, there were eighty universities in Europe, most of them located in England, France, Italy, and Germany” • Universities developed out of monastery and cathedral schools -- really what we would call elementary schools, but attended by adolescents and taught by monks and priests.. • The first documented universities (University of Bologna(1088), University of Paris (teach. mid-11th century, recogn. 1150), University of Oxford (teach. 1096, recogn. 1167), University of Modena (1175), University of Palencia (1208), University of Cambridge (1209), University of Salamanca (1218), University of Montpellier (1220), University of Padua (1222), University of Toulouse (1229), University of Orleans (1235), University of Siena (1240) and University of Coimbra (1288)) began as private corporations of teachers and their pupils. 1347 • The University of Prague is founded in 1380,1386 University of Heidelberg

8. University of Paris • A predecessor of the modern university was in Paris, especially under the guidance of Peter Abelard,. Dissatisfied with tensions between burghers and students and the Censorship of leading intellectuals by the Church, Abelard and others formed the Universitas, modelled on the mediaeval guild, self-regulating, permanent institution of higher education. • Abelard Peter Abelard (1079-1142) The primary development of scholastic philosophy began with the teachings of Peter Abelard; he first attempted to synthesize reason and theology. He was the single most important personality in establishing 12th-century Paris as the university center of Europe. He is best known, however, for conceptualism, his attempt to synthesize nominalism and realism.

9. Av icenna of Baghdad(Ibn Sina, 980-1037) was one of these great thinkers.Thoroughlyfamiliar with Aristotle, he was none-the-less a NEO-platonist and agnostic, as it seems all Moslem philosophers must be in order to remain Moslem. Generally, he felt that reason and faith could not conflict, as the Christian thinkers had concluded as well. • Averroes of Cordova(Ibn Rushd, 1126- 1 1198) is the greatest of the Islamic philosophers. He began as a lawyer, and was chief justice of Seville and later of Cordova. He was also a physician, and served as the court physician in Marrakesh. He was the first to recognize that if a person survived smallpox, they would be immune thereafter. But Islam’s openness to philosophy was not to last. The Emir of Baghdad ordered Averroes’ books burned, and his example was followed by other leaders all the way back to Averroes’ homeland of Spain.

10. In the late Middle Ages (the 1200s St Thomas Aristotle excited a lot of thought in the monks and scholars of the universities. These neo-Aristotelians were called schoolmen, or scholastics. By studying Aristotle and his Arab and Jewish commentators, they learned to think more logically, but their goals were still essentialy theological. He was the most famous and influential of the Parisian masters of the 13th century (although he was born of Italian noble parentage). “He began his studies at the University of Naples

11. Roger Bacon (1214-1294),one of Thomas critics, a Franciscan monk and scientist, pointed out that reason does actually need experience in order to have something to reason about -- a hint of modern empiricism in the Middle Ages! . * John Duns Scotus (1265-1308 St. Thomas’ severest critic), a Franciscan monk and professor at Oxford, Paris, and Cologne. He believed that the authority of the church was everything. The will is supreme and intellect is subordinate to it. Although a conceptualist (like Thomas), of the thing, the idea, and the name, he felt that it was the individual thing that was the most real. His student William would take that and run with it. • in England (1280-1347) was another Franciscan monk. Like Roger Bacon, he believed that, without sensory contact with things, the universal is inconceivable. In fact, he said universals are only names we give groups of things -- a return to the no theologians do not prove by rigid demonstration what they accept, but show they are reasonable. Theology, then, is Fides quaerens intellectum (Anselm)

12. Science in the Middle Ages • Aristotle and His Work, Medieval thinkers failed to free science from its subservient position as a handmaiden to theology. "In the area of science as in many others, medieval intellectuals considered Aristotle the master of all knowledge. Aristotle had taught that natural science should be based on observations that could then lead to generalizations. • Robert Grosseteste (1168-1253), The Englishman ,the chancellor of Oxford University, stressed the need for students to observe the world of nature and was especially interested in the study of light or the science of optics. He was persuaded that a deeper knowledge of physical light would serve to penetrate the nature of the universe., • Roger Bacon (1220-1292), Grosseteste's pupil carried on his master's work. Although Bacon achieved no scientific breakthroughs of his own, he is still remembered for his imaginative visions of flying machines, submarines, and powered ships and for emphasizing the importance of mathematics for the study of both "natural" and "divine" philosophy.

13. St. Anselm of Canterbury(1033-1109) was a neoPlatonist, and he is best known for his efforts at coming up with a logical proof of God’s existence -- the famous ontological proof: Since we can think of a perfect being, he must exist, since perfection implies existence. he was a proponent of realism. Anselm’s motto was Augustine’s “I believe in order that I may understand” Nominalism • Roscellinus of Amoricain Brittany (1050-1121) was the founder of nominalism, another approach to universals. A universal, he said, is just a “flatus vocis” (a vocal sound -- i.e. a word). Only individuals actually exist. Words, and the ideas they represent, refer to nothing. This is quite compatable with materialism and empiricism, but not, really, to Christianity.

14. From the end of the Thirteenth Century and into the next, greater numbers of colleges and universities were founded. Recovered texts from the Roman period, such as Justinian’s Corpus JurisCivilis, expanded the field of learning, particularly legal studies. Increased contact with the ever diminished Byzantines resulted in scholars fleeing Muslim incursions and bringing their books with them. • By the Renaissance, university studies underwent more significant changes. Ultimately, the birth of the university system in the Twelfth Century began a process that substantially impacted Western Civilization, effecting law, medicine, and a pathway toward an openness that would eventually break with the old order of thinking, leading Europe into the early modern period

15. History of PRINTING AND movable type • Diamond Sutra The earliest dated printed book known, printed in China in 868 CE. However, it is suspected that book printing may have occurred long before this date. 618 to 906: T’ang Dynasty - the first printing is done in China using ink on carved wooden blocks begins to make multiple transfers of an image to paper. • Movable type is the system of printing and typography that uses movable components to reproduce the elements of a document (usually individual letters or punctuation). • The world's first known movable-type system for printing was created in China around 1040 AD by Bi Sheng (990–1051) during the Song Dynasty as described by the Chinese scholar ShenKuo (1031–1095), but was abandoned in favour of clay movable types due to the presence of wood grains and the unevenness of the wooden type after being soaked in ink Prior to the development of metal movable type, most printing was done using blocks carved from wood. • Woodblock printing was used extensively in East Asia, and created the world's first print culture.

16. KIND OF MOVABLES TYPES • Wooden movable type • Pottery movable type,the first known movable-type system for printing was created in China around 1040 AD. This type was made of baked clay. • Yuan dynasty woodblock edition of a Chinese play In 1193, Zhou Bida, an officer of Southern Song Dynasty, made a set of clay movable-type method according to the method described by ShenKuo in his Dream Pool Essays, and printed his book Notes of The Jade Hall • Ceramic movable type • Porcelain movable type occurred in 1719 • Metal movable type • Copperplate of 1215-1216 5000 cash paper money with bronze movable type conterfeit markers

17. Movable Type traces its origins to the punches used to make coins: the reverse face of a TetradrachmGreek coin from Athens, 5th century BC, featuring letters and the owl symbol of Athena. • The technique of imprinting multiple copies of symbols or glyphs with a master type punch made of hard metal first developed around 3000 BC in ancient Sumer A replica of the Phaistos Disc • The enigmatic MinoanPhaistos Disc of 1800–1600 BC has been considered by one scholar as an early example of a body of text being reproduced with reusable characters: it may have been produced by pressing pre-formed hieroglyphic "seals" into the soft clay. A few authors even view the disc as technically meeting all definitional criteria to represent an early, if not the earliest incidence of movable-type printing

18. Koreathe Koreans invented a form of movable type that has been described by the French scholar Henri-Jean Martin as '[extremely similar] to Gutenberg's'; the Western invention may have been Type-founding 1241: Koreans print books using movable typeA piece of cast metal type, Garamond style long siligature(typesetting).Type-founding as practiced in Europe and the west consists of three stages.Punchcutting: If the glyph design includes enclosed spaces (counters) then a counterpunch is made. The counter shapes are transferred in relief (cameo) onto the end of a rectangular bar of mild steel using a specialized engraving tool called a graver. The finished counterpunch is hardened by heating and quenching (tempering), or exposure to a cyanide solution (case hardening).Matrix: The letterpunch is used to strike a blank die of soft metal to make a negative letter mould, called a matrix.Casting: The matrix is inserted into the bottom of a device called a hand mould. The mould is clamped shut and molten type metal alloy consisting mostly of lead and tin, with a small amount of antimony for hardening, is poured into a cavity from the top. Antimony has the rare property of expanding as it cools, giving the casting sharp edges[34] . When the type metal has sufficiently cooled, the mould is unlocked and a rectangular block approximately 4 centimeters long, called a sort, is extracted. Excess casting on the end of the sort, called the tang, is later removed to make the sort the precise height required for printing, known as "type height".

19. Metal movable type in Europe • A case of cast metal type pieces and typeset matter in a composing stick • 1452: In Europe, metal plates are first used in printing. Gutenberg begins printing the Bible which he finishes in 1456 • Johannes Gutenberg of Mainz is acknowledged as the first to invent a metal movable-type printing system in Europe. Gutenberg was a goldsmith familiar with techniques of cutting punches for making coins from moulds. Between 1436 and 1450 he developed hardware and techniques for casting letters from matrices using a device called the hand mould. • Gutenberg's movable-type printing system spread rapidly across Europe, from the single Mainz press in 1457 to 110 presses by 1480, of which 50 were in Italy. Venice quickly became the center of typographic and printing activity. Significant were the contributions of Nicolas Jenson, Francesco Griffo, Aldus Manutius, and other printers of late 15th-century Europe. Despite some conjectures (see[21]), there is no evidence that movable type from the East ever reached Europe.

20. Source : Jean Key Gates, Intro to Librarianship, DR. George Boercee, The Middle Ages http://www.suite101.com/content/universities-and-students-in-the-high-middle-ages-a298007#ixzz1RUiXPUyb • Reporter: Alma Gomes