Learning Chapter 8

1. Learning Chapter 8

2. Introduction This lecture will: Explain the importance of learning in organizations Give a definition of learning Show how learning is affected by power relations such as those involved in gender, class, ethnicity Discuss the nature of adult learning Show and discuss practical applications of learning theories

3. The Nature of Learning Learning can be defined as a relatively permanent change in behaviour or human capabilities resulting from processing new knowledge, practice or experience Such capabilities relate to all types of skills: cognitive/motor skills, attitudes and verbal information (Gagne & Medsker) Learning results in the assimilation of group ‘norms’ Learning is a mode of adaptation to change, it can be formal, non-formal, informal or incidental Incidental learning results in tacit knowledge; the other processes result in explicit knowledge

4. Workplace Learning Learning processes help facilitate the emergence of an organization’s intellectual capital This helps employee commitment to the aims of an organization The inter-relationship of tacit and explicit knowledge is important for the adaptive development of ‘knowledge management’ – it results in human capital, which is a feature of an organization’s intellectual capital To sustain competitive advantage, lifelong learning is important as it encourages a reflexive approach Gender and power are highlighted in recent accounts of learning from a critical perspective, suggesting thatmanagement elites reinforce a managerialist perspective

5. Classical Learning Theories These include: The behavioural approach The cognitive approach The social-learning approach We will examine each of these theories in turn and then look at some more recent theories – including adult learning perspectives

6. Behavioural Approach The behavioural approach perceives learning as little more than a chain of conditioned (learned) reflexes encouraged or inhibited by positive and negative reinforcement The two best-known behavioural theorists are Ivan Pavlov and B.F.Skinner They explained learning as an interaction with the environment Pavlov (1849-1936) was famous for his experiment with dogs and his studies of conditioning. He is described as the 'father of behaviourism' Skinner (1904-1990) devised the theory of ‘operant conditioning’, which placed reliance on behavioural reinforcement stimuli (negative or positive)

7. Figure 8.1 - Classic or Pavlovian Conditioning

8. Figure 8.2 - Examples of Positive and Negative Reinforcement Reinforcement is a means of inducing motivational states in organizations. Rewards are a form of positive reinforcement

9. Cognitive Approach This approach concerns learning through feedback: cognitive theorists believe that how individuals perceive, evaluate feedback, represent, store and use information plays an important role in learning The key theorists of this approach were Max Wertheimer (1890-1943), Wolfgang Kohler (1887-1967) and Kurt Lewin (1890-1947) Wertheimer and Kohler were gestalt theorists looking to the overall shape of pattern of consciousness Kohler developed a theory called insightful learning through his experiments on chimpanzees; he argued stimulus response learning did not have to be gradual and incremental Cognitive theorists concentrated on the ‘black box’ of the mind, whereas behavioural theories thought the internal contents of the mind were not measurable and so looked outwards, to the environment Recent approaches have refined Kohler’s and have lent support to the idea of a ‘trial and error’ component in learning (Bernstein)

10. Table 8.1 - Approaches to Learning Theory Comparing the behaviourist and cognitive approaches

11. Social Learning Approach (1) Social-learning (S-L) theorists believe that people develop through observational learning The theory operates on the basis of symbolic representations; individuals learn by observing others directly or indirectly... Bandura (1977) argued that learning involved four inter-related processes: Attention Memory Motor skills Motivation. Close attention to a model leads to self-efficacy (confidence to learn fresh skills)

12. Figure 8.3 - Three Aspects of Reciprocal Learning (Learning through modelling)

13. Social Learning Approach (2) Vygotsky(1978) argued that learning occurs through a dynamic social exchange between master and novice Optimal learning is achieved with support and through internalization of learning – this is defined as ‘relational’ and relies on language forms of learning A contrasting theory is the community of practice approach, which looks to the variation in types of socialized learning and relates to a community that shares an expertise Individuals make a journey from novice to master within the learning community Debate attends this theory relating to whether class-based or formal learning is needed or not Engestrom (1991) argued that apart from imitation of a model, investigative and expansive knowledge was needed to reach higher levels of learning

14. Figure 8.4 - A Work Related Model of Learning This figure shows Activity Theory which uses a mix of practice theory (Wenger) and the theories of Vygotsky and Engstrom, to test work related mechanisms Related theory developments were made by Rogoff (1995)

15. Adult Learning Theories These theories arose as the behaviourist approach declined in popularity We will investigate four key theories: Andragogy Self-Directed Learning Transformational Learning Learning issues of Class ethnicity and gender

16. Andragogy Andragogy is defined as 'the art and science of helping adults learn’ (in contrast, pedagogy relates to children’s learning) Knowles characterized adult learners as well-motivated, independent and mature He first thought of andragogy and pedagogy as opposites but later revised his view He believed that andragogy (adult learning) involved a shift in one’s self concept from dependency to self-directedness (Knowles, 1973)

17. Table 8.2 - A comparison of the assumptions of Andragogy and Pedagogy

18. Self-Directed Learning This approach emphasizes self-initiated and managed learning which facilitates empowerment and allows for greater learner autonomy (Caffarella, 1993) It encourages individuality and links in with Carl Rodger’s theories The learner is not viewed as passive but as dynamic and evolving In practical terms the learner draws up a learning contract which reflects their intentions/independence

19. Transformational Learning A process aimed at producing far-reaching changes in the learner and the learner’s construction of knowledge: Mezirow (1981/1990) emphasized the restructuring of the self in cognitive terms, by transcending behaviourism and social assumptions of roles At the centre of this approach is the idea of a rational, autonomous adult who can gain control over their life A weakness of the ideas is that they underrate the force of class structures or power (Scott 1998)

20. Class, Ethnicity, Gender and Learning • Learning at work is affected by societal factors such as: • Social class • Ethnicity • Culture • Gender • Sexual orientation • Power relations

21. Learning Theories in Practice The various theories we have outlined underpin ideas such as self-direction, critical reflection, learning from experience and transformational learning Kolb and his co-workers developed a theory called the Learning Cycle – this is a popular model adopted by facilitators and trainers and synthesises many of the theories explained in this lecture...

22. Figure 8.5 - Kolb et al’s Experiential learning cycle

23. Table 8.3 - Applying Learning Theory in the Organization This table summarizes some of the key features of the theories we have outlined, showing how the earlier classical/psychological theories have begun to give way to learning theories which debate and articulate key aspects of adult learning theory