Essay

1. Essay For other uses, see Essay (disambiguation). For a description of essays as used by Wikipedia editors, see Wikipedia:Essays. “Essai” redirects here. For other uses, see Essai (disam- biguation). Essays are generally scholarly pieces of writing giving ten used by universities in selecting applicants, and in the humanities and social sciences essays are often used as a way of assessing the performance of students during final exams. The concept of an “essay” has been extended to other mediums beyond writing. A film essay is a movie which often incorporates documentary film making styles and which focuses more on the evolution of a theme or an idea. A photographic essay is an attempt to cover a topic with a linked series of photographs; it may or may not have an accompanying text or captions. 1 Definitions An essay has been defined in a variety of ways. definition is a “prose composition with a focused sub- ject of discussion” or a “long, systematic discourse”.[1] It is di cult to define the genre into which essays fall. ffi Aldous Huxley, a leading essayist, gives guidance on the subject.[2]He notes that “the essay is a literary device for saying almost everything about almost anything”, and adds that “by tradition, almost by definition, the essay is a short piece”. Furthermore, Huxley argues that “essays belong to a literary species whose extreme variability can be studied most eectively within a three-poled frame of ff reference”. These three poles (or worlds in which the es- say may exist) are: One • The personal and the autobiographical: The essay- ists that feel most comfortable in this pole “write fragments of reflective autobiography and look at the world through the keyhole of anecdote and de- scription”. Essays of Michel de Montaigne the author’s own argument, but the definition is vague, overlapping with those of an article, a pamphlet and a short story. • The objective, the factual, and the concrete- particular: The essayists that write from this pole “do not speak directly of themselves, but turn their attention outward to some literary or scientific or political theme. Their art consists on setting forth, passing judgement upon, and drawing general con- clusions from the relevant data”. Essays can consist of a number of elements, includ- ing: literary criticism, political manifestos, learned arguments, observations of daily life, recollections,and reflections of the author. Almost all modern essays are written in prose, but works in verse have been dubbed es- says (e.g. Alexander Pope's An Essay on Criticism and An Essay on Man). While brevity usually defines an essay, voluminous works like John Locke's An Essay Concern- ing Human Understanding and Thomas Malthus's An Es- say on the Principle of Population are counterexamples. In some countries (e.g., the United States and Canada), essays have become a major part of formal education. Secondary students are taught structured essay formats to improve their writing skills; admission essays are of- • The abstract-universal: In this pole “we find those essayists who do their work in the world of high ab- stractions”, who are never personal and who seldom mention the particular facts of experience. Huxley adds that “the most richly satisfying essays are those which make the best not of one, not of two, but of 1

2. 2 3 AS AN EDUCATIONAL TOOL 2 History 2.1 Europe English essayists included Robert Burton (1577–1641) and Sir Thomas Browne (1605–1682). In France, Michel de Montaigne's three volume Essais in the mid 1500s con- tain over 100 examples widely regarded as the predeces- sor of the modern essay. In Italy, Baldassare Castiglione wrote about courtly manners in his essay Il libro del corte- giano. In the 17th century, the Jesuit Baltasar Gracián wrote about the theme of wisdom.[4]During the Age of Enlightenment, essays were a favored tool of polemicists who aimed at convincing readers of their position; they also featured heavily in the rise of periodical literature, as seen in the works of Joseph Addison, Richard Steele and Samuel Johnson. In the 18th and 19th centuries, Edmund Burke and Samuel Taylor Coleridge wrote es- says for the general public. The early 19th century in par- ticular saw a proliferation of great essayists in English – William Hazlitt, Charles Lamb, Leigh Hunt and Thomas de Quincey all penned numerous essays on diverse sub- jects. In the 20th century, a number of essayists tried to explain the new movements in art and culture by using essays (e.g., T.S. Eliot). Whereas some essayists used es- says for strident political themes, Robert Louis Stevenson and Willa Cather wrote lighter essays. Virginia Woolf, Edmund Wilson, and Charles du Bos wrote literary crit- icism essays.[4] 2.2 Japan John Locke's 1690 An Essay Concerning Human Understand- ing. Main article: Zuihitsu As with the novel, essays existed in Japan several cen- turies before they developed in Europe with a genre of essays known as zuihitsu —loosely connected essays and fragmented ideas. Zuihitsu have existed since almost the beginnings of Japanese literature. Many of the most noted early works of Japanese literature are in this genre. Notable examples include The Pillow Book (c. 1000), by court lady Sei Shōnagon, and Tsurezuregusa (1330),by particularly renowned Japanese Buddhist monk Yoshida Kenkō. Kenkō described his short writings similarly to Montaigne, referring to them as “nonsensical thoughts” written in “idle hours”. Another noteworthy di erence from Europe is that women have traditionally written in Japan, though the more formal, Chinese-influenced writ- ings of male writers were more prized at the time. all the three worlds in which it is possible for the essay to exist”. The word essay derives from the French infinitive essayer, “to try” or “to attempt”. In English essay first meant “a trial” or “an attempt”, and this is still an alternative mean- ing. The Frenchman Michel de Montaigne (1533–1592) was the first author to describe his work as essays; he used the term to characterize these as “attempts” to put his thoughts into writing, and his essays grew out of his commonplacing.[3]Inspired in particular by the works of Plutarch, a translation of whose Œuvres Morales (Moral works) into French had just been published by Jacques Amyot, Montaigne began to compose his essays in 1572; the first edition, entitled Essais, was published in two vol- umes in 1580. For the rest of his life he continued revis- ing previously published essays and composing new ones. Francis Bacon's essays, published in book form in 1597, 1612, and 1625, were the first works in English that de- scribed themselves as essays. Ben Jonson first used the word essayist in English in 1609, according to the Oxford English Dictionary. ff 3 As an educational tool Main article: Free response

3. 3 Most academic institutions will require that all substan- tial facts, quotations, and other porting material used in an essay be referenced in a bibliography or works cited page at the end of the text. allows others (whether teachers or fellow scholars) to un- derstand the basis of the facts and quotations used to sup- port the essay’s argument, and thereby help to evaluate to what extent the argument is supported by evidence, and to evaluate the quality of that evidence. The academic es- say tests the student’s ability to present their thoughts in an organized way and is designed to test their intellectual capabilities. This scholarly convention One essay guide of a US university makes the distinc- tion between research papers and discussion papers.The guide states that a “research paper is intended to uncover a wide variety of sources on a given topic”.As such, re- search papers “tend to be longer and more inclusive in their scope and with the amount of information they deal with.” While discussion papers “also include research, ...they tend to be shorter and more selective in their ap- proach...and more analytical and critical”. Whereas a research paper would typically quote “a wide variety of sources”, a discussion paper aims to integrate the material in a broader fashion.[5] University students,like these students doing research at a uni- versity library, are often assigned essays as a way to get them to analyse what they have read. One of the challenges facing US universities is that some cases, students may submit essays which have been purchased from an essay mill (or “paper mill”) as their own work. An “essay mill” is a ghostwriting service that sells pre-written essays to university and college students. Since plagiarism is a form of academic dishonesty or academic fraud, universities and colleges may investigate papers suspected to be from an essay mill by using Inter- net plagiarism detection software, which compares essays against a database of known mill essays and by orally test- ing students on the contents of their papers. in In countries like the United States and the United King- dom, essays have become a major education in the form of free response questions. ondary students in these countries are taught structured essay formats to improve their writing skills, and essays are often used by universities in these countries in select- ing applicants (see admissions essay).In both secondary and tertiary education, essays are used to judge the mas- tery and comprehension of material. Students are asked to explain, comment on, or assess a topic of study in the form of an essay. During some courses, university stu- dents will often be required to complete one or more es- says that are prepared over several weeks or months. In addition, in fields such as the humanities and social sci- ences, mid-term and end of term examinations often re- quire students to write a short essay in two or three hours. part of a formal Sec- 4 Forms and styles ff This section describes the di erent forms and styles of essay writing. These forms and styles are used by an array of authors, including university students and professional essayists. In these countries, so-called academic essays, which may also be called “papers”, are usually more formal than lit- erary ones. They may still allow the presentation of the writer’s own views, but this is done in a logical and fac- tual manner, with the use of the first person often dis- couraged. Longer academic essays (often with a word limit of between 2,000 and 5,000 words) are often more discursive. They sometimes begin with a short summary analysis of what has previously been written on a topic, which is often called a literature review. ff 4.1 Cause and e ect ff The defining features of a “cause and eect” essay are causal chains that connect from a cause to an eect, care- ful language, and chronological or emphatic order. writer using this rhetorical method must consider the sub- ject, determine the purpose, consider the audience, think critically about di erent ff causes or consequences, con- sider a thesis statement, arrange the parts, consider the language, and decide on a conclusion.[6] ff A Longer essays may also contain an introductory page in which words and phrases from the title are tightly defined.

4. 4 4 FORMS AND STYLES 4.2 Classification and division decide on specific examples, and arrange all the parts to- gether when writing an exemplification essay.[11] Classification is the categorization of objects into a larger whole while division is the breaking of a larger whole into smaller parts.[7] 4.3 Compare and contrast Compare and contrast essays are characterized by a ba- sis for comparison, points of comparison, and analogies. It is grouped by object (chunking) or by point (sequen- tial). Comparison highlights the similarities between two or more similar objects while contrasting highlights the di erences between two or more objects. ff ing a compare/contrast essay, writers need to determine their purpose, consider their audience, consider the basis and points of comparison, consider their thesis statement, arrange and develop the comparison, and reach a conclu- sion. Compare and contrast is arranged emphatically.[8] When writ- 4.4 Descriptive Descriptive writing is characterized by sensory details, which appeal to the physical senses, and details that ap- peal to a reader’s emotional, physical, or intellectual sen- sibilities. Determining the purpose, considering the au- dience, creating a dominant impression, using descrip- tive language, and organizing the description are the rhetorical choices to be considered when using a de- scription. A description is usually arranged spatially but can also be chronological or emphatic. a description is the scene. Description uses tools such as denotative language, connotative language,figurative language, metaphor, and simile to arrive at a dominant impression.[9]One university essay guide states that “de- scriptive writing says what happened or what another au- thor has discussed; it provides an account of the topic”. Lyric essays are an important form of descriptive essays. The focus of Malthus’ Essay on the Principle of Population [10] 4.7 Familiar Familiar essays are ones in which essayists speak as if to a single reader, writing about both themselves, and about particular subjects. Anne Fadiman notes that “the genre’s heyday was the early nineteenth century,” and that its greatest exponent was Charles Lamb.[12]She also sug- gests that while critical essays have more brain than heart, and personal essays have more heart than brain, familiar essays have equal measures of both.[13] 4.5 Dialectic In the dialectic form of essay, which is commonly used in Philosophy, the writer makes a thesis and argument, then objects to their own argument (with a counterargu- ment), but then counters the counterargument with a final and novel argument. This form benefits from presenting a broader perspective while countering a possible flaw that some may present. 4.8 History (thesis) 4.6 Exemplification A history essay, sometimes referred to as a thesis essay, will describe an argument or claim about one or more his- torical events and will support that claim with evidence, arguments and references. The text makes it clear to the reader why the argument or claim is as such.[14] An exemplification essay is characterized by a general- ization and relevant, representative, and believable exam- ples including anecdotes. Writers need to consider their subject, determine their purpose, consider their audience,

5. 5 4.9 Narrative A narrative uses tools such as flashbacks, flash-forwards, and transitions that often build to a climax. of a narrative is the plot. When creating a narrative, au- thors must determine their purpose, consider their au- dience, establish their point of view, use dialogue, and organize the narrative. A narrative is usually arranged chronologically.[15] The focus 4.10 Critical A critical essay is an argumentative piece of writing, aimed at presenting objective analysis of the subject mat- ter, narrowed down to a single topic. The main idea of all the criticism is to provide an opinion either of positive or negative implication. As such, a critical essay requires re- search and analysis, strong internal logic and sharp struc- ture. Each argument should be supported with su cient evidence, relevant to the point. ffi 4.11 Economic An 1895 cover of Harpers, a US magazine that prints a number of essays per issue. An economic essay can start with a thesis, or it can start with a theme. It can take a narrative course and a descrip- tive course. It can even become an argumentative essay if the author feels the need. After the introduction the au- thor has to do his/her best to expose the economic matter at hand, to analyse it, evaluate it, and draw a conclusion. If the essay takes more of a narrative form then the author has to expose each aspect of the economic puzzle in a way that makes it clear and understandable for the reader 6 Employment Employment essays detailing experience in a certain oc- cupational field are required when applying for some jobs, especially government jobs in the United States. Essays known as Knowledge Skills and Executive Core Qualifi- cations are required when applying to certain US federal government positions. 4.12 Other logical structures A KSA, or “Knowledge, Skills, and Abilities,” is a series of narrative statements that are required when applying to Federal government job openings in the United States. KSAs are used along with resumes to determine who the best applicants are when several candidates qualify for a job. The knowledge, skills and abilities necessary for the successful performance of a position are contained on each job vacancy announcement.KSAs are brief and focused essays about one’s career and educational back- ground that presumably qualify one to perform the duties of the position being applied for. The logical progression and organizational structure of an essay can take many forms. Understanding how the movement of thought is managed through an essay has a profound impact on its overall cogency and ability to impress. A number of alternative logical structures for essays have been visualized as diagrams, making them easy to implement or adapt in the construction of an argument.[16] An Executive Core Qualification, or ECQ, is a narrative statement that is required when applying to Senior Execu- tive Service positions within the US Federal government. Like the KSAs, ECQs are used along with resumes to determine who the best applicants are when several can- didates qualify for a job. The Oce of Personnel Man- agement has established five executive core qualifications that all applicants seeking to enter the Senior Executive Service must demonstrate. 5 Magazine or newspaper Essays often appear in magazines, especially maga- zines with an intellectual bent, such as The Atlantic and Harpers. Magazine and newspaper essays use many of the essay types described in the section on forms and styles (e.g., descriptive essays, narrative essays, etc.). Some newspapers also print essays in the op-ed section. ffi

6. 6 8 SEE ALSO 7 Non-literary types content of the music to guide the listener’s ear, rather than any extra-musical plot or story. 7.1 Film 7.3 Photography A film essay (or “cinematic essay”) consists of the evolu- tion of a theme or an idea rather than a plot per se; or the film literally being a cinematic accompaniment to a narra- tor reading an essay.From another perspective, an essay film could be defined as a documentary film visual basis combined with a form of commentary that contains ele- ments of self-portrait (rather than autobiography), where the signature (rather than the life story) of the filmmaker is apparent. The cinematic essay often blends documen- tary, fiction, and experimental film making using a tones and editing styles.[17] “After SchoolPlay Interrupted by the Catch and Release of a Stingray” is a simple time-sequence photo essay. A photographic essay is an attempt to cover a topic with a linked series of photographs. Photo essays range from purely photographic works to photographs with captions or small notes to full text essays with a few or many ac- companying photographs. Photo essays can be sequential in nature, intended to be viewed in a particular order, or they may consist of non-ordered photographs which may be viewed all at once or in an order chosen by the viewer. All photo essays are collections of photographs, but not all collections of photographs are photo essays. Photo es- says often address a certain issue or attempt to capture the character of places and events. The genre is not paganda works of early Soviet parliamentarians like Dziga Vertov, present-day filmmakers including Chris Marker,[18]Michael Moore (Roger & Me (1989), Bowling for Columbine (2002) and Fahrenheit 9/11 (2004)), Errol Morris (The Thin Blue Line (1988)), Morgan Spurlock (Supersize Me: A Film of Epic Proportions) and Agnès Varda. Jean-Luc Godard describes his recent work as “film-essays”.[19]Two filmmakers whose work was the antecedent to the cinematic essay include Georges Méliès and Bertolt Brecht.Méliès made a short film (The Coro- nation of Edward VII (1902)) about the 1902 coronation of King Edward VII, which mixes actual footage with shots of a recreation of the event. Brecht was a playwright who experimented with film and incorporated film pro- jections into some of his plays.[17]Orson Welles made an essay film in his own pioneering style which was released in 1974 called F for Fake, which dealt specifically with art forger Elmyr de Hory and with the themes of decep- tion, “fakery,” and authenticity in general. well-defined but might include pro- 7.4 Visual Arts In the visual arts, an essay is a preliminary drawing or sketch upon which a final painting or sculpture is based, made as a test of the work’s composition (this meaning of the term, like several of those following, comes from the word essay's meaning of “attempt” or “trial”). David Winks Gray’s article “The essay film in action” states that the “essay film became an identifiable form of film making in the 1950s and '60s”. since that time, essay films have tended to be “on the mar- gins” of the film making world. Essay films have a “pecu- liar searching, questioning tone” which is “between doc- umentary and fiction” but without “fitting comfortably” into either genre. Gray notes that just like written es- says, essay films “tend to marry the personal voice of a guiding narrator (often the director) with a wide swath of other voices”.[20]The University of Wisconsin Cinemath- eque website echoes some of Gray’s comments; it calls a film essay an “intimate and allusive” genre that “catches filmmakers in a pensive mood, ruminating on the mar- gins between fiction and documentary” in a manner that is “refreshingly inventive, playful, and idiosyncratic”. 8 See also He states that • Abstract (summary) • Admissions essay • Body (writing) • Book report • Thesis • Essay thesis • Five paragraph essay [21] • Introduction • List of essayists 7.2 Music • Plagiarism In the realm of music, composer Samuel Barber wrote a set of “Essays for Orchestra,” relying on the form and • SAT Essay

7. 7 • Schaer paragraph ff [18] (registration required) Lim, Dennis (July 31, 2012). “Chris Marker, 91, Pioneer of the Essay Film”.The New York Times.Retrieved July 31, 2012. • Treatise • Writing [19] Discussion of film essays.Chicago Media Works. [20] . San Francisco Film Society. 9 References [21] “Talking Pictures: The Art of the Essay Film”. ema.wisc.edu. Retrieved March 22, 2011. Cin- [1] Gale Gale.cengage.com.Retrieved March 23, 2011. – Free Resources – Glossary – DE. 10 Further reading [2] Aldous Huxley, Collected Essays, “Preface”. • Theodor W. Adorno, “The Essay as Theodor W. Adorno, The Adorno Reader, Blackwell Publishers 2000. [3] “Book Use Book Theory: Thinking”. Lib.uchicago.edu.Retrieved 2013-08-10. 1500–1700: Commonplace Form” in: [4] essay (literature) – Britannica Online Encyclopedia.Bri- tannica.com. Retrieved March 22, 2011. • Beaujour, Michel. Miroirs d'encre: Rhétorique de l'autoportrait'. Paris: Seuil, 1980. [Poetics of the Literary Self-Portrait. Trans. Yara Milos. New York: NYU Press, 1991]. [5] Sections 3.1 through 3.3.of the Simon Fraser University CNS essay handbook. ff [6] Chapter 7: Cause and Eect in Glenn, Sense: A Real World Rhetorical Reader. Ed. Denise B. Wydra, et al. Second ed. Boston, MA: Bedford/St.Mar- tin’s, 2005. Cheryl. Making • Bensmaïa, Reda. The Barthes Eect: Reflective Text. Trans. Pat Fedkiew. Minneapolis: Univ. of Minnesota Press, 1987. ff The Essay as • D'Agata, John (Editor), The Lost Origins of the Es- say. St Paul:Graywolf Press, 2009. [7] Chapter 5: Classification and Division in Glenn, Cheryl. Making Sense: A Real World Rhetorical Reader. Ed. Denise B. Wydra, et al. Second ed. Boston, MA: Bed- ford/St. Martin’s, 2005. • Giamatti, Louis. “The Cinematic Essay”, in Godard and the Others:Essays in Cinematic Form. London, Tantivy Press, 1975. [8] Chapter 6: Comparison and Contrast in Glenn, Cheryl. Making Sense: A Real World Rhetorical Reader. Ed. Denise B. Wydra, et al. Second ed. Boston, MA: Bed- ford/St. Martin’s, 2005. • Lopate, Phillip. “In Search of the Centaur: Essay-Film”, in Beyond Document:Essays on Non- fiction Film. Edited by Charles Warren, Wesleyan University Press, 1998.pp. 243–270. The [9] Chapter 2: Description in Glenn, Cheryl.Making Sense: A Real World Rhetorical Reader.Ed. Denise B. Wydra, et al. Second ed. Boston, MA: Bedford/St. Martin’s, 2005. • Warburton, Nigel. Routledge, 2006. 978-0-415-24000-0 The basics of essay writing. ISBN 0-415-24000-X, ISBN [10] Section 2.1 of the Simon Fraser University CNS Essay Handbook. Available online at:sfu.ca [11] Chapter 4: Exemplification in Glenn, Cheryl. Making Sense: A Real World Rhetorical Reader. Ed. Denise B. Wydra, et al. Second ed. Boston, MA: Bedford/St.Mar- tin’s, 2005. 11 External links • Essay [12] Fadiman, Anne. At Large and At Small:Familiar Essays. p. x. • Essay eTexts at Project Gutenberg • The Dialectical Essay: A detailed writing guide – Sewanee University [13] Fadiman, At Large and At Small, xi. [14] History Essay Format & Thesis Statement, (February 2010) • In Praise of the Undergraduate Essay by Dan Edel- stein, Stanford University [15] Chapter 3 Narration in Glenn, Cheryl. Making Sense: A Real World Rhetorical Reader.Ed. Denise B. Wydra, et al. Second ed. Boston, MA: Bedford/St.Martin’s, 2005. • The Age of the Essay – Criticism of the modern es- say, by Paul Graham • How to Say Nothing in 500 Words at the Wayback Machine (archived October 27, 2007) [16] "'Mission Possible'by Dr. Mario Petrucci” (PDF). Re- trieved 2014-10-25. • How to write an essay - Infographic [17] Cinematic Essay Film Genre. chicagomediaworks.com. Retrieved March 22, 2011.

8. 8 12 TEXT AND IMAGE SOURCES, CONTRIBUTORS, AND LICENSES 12 Text and image sources, contributors, and licenses 12.1 Text • Essay Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Essay?oldid=696911285 Contributors: Andre Engels, Rgamble, Olivier, DennisDaniels, Frecklefoot, Edward, Bdesham, JohnOwens, Michael Hardy, Ixfd64, Gjbloom, ArnoLagrange, Ahoerstemeier, Stan Shebs, Jebba, An- dres, Jengod, Alex S, Abscissa, Phoebe, AaronSw, Rbellin, Huangdi, Nufy8, Robbot, Zandperl, Chris 73, Postdlf, Hadal, Michael Snow, Dina, Carnildo, Alan Liefting, Wolfkeeper, Monedula, Peruvianllama, Anville, Brona, Alison, Duncharris, DO'Neil, ALargeElk, Andy- cjp, LiDaobing, Beland, Savant1984, Sam Hocevar, Gscshoyru, GreenReaper, Trevor MacInnis, Mike Rosoft, Discospinster, William Pietri, Rhobite, Loganberry, Ld, YUL89YYZ, Pavel Vozenilek, Paul August, Edgarde, Mwanner, RoyBoy, Bobo192, Smalljim, Cohesion, Maurreen, SpeedyGonsales, Jojit fb, MPerel, SilasM, Chicago god, Grutness, Alansohn, Ronline, Fritzpoll, Caesura, DreamGuy, Snowolf, Wtmitchell, RainbowOfLight, Sciurinæ, Lerdsuwa, OwenX, Mowerbyte, RHaworth, LOL, Mark K. Jensen, Ekem, NeoChaosX, MONGO, Apokrif, G.W., Stefanomione, Audiodude, Tslocum, Graham87, FreplySpang, RxS, Dwarf Kirlston, Squideshi, Joe Decker, Mykola Petrenko, BradGad, Nneonneo, ElKevbo, Yamamoto Ichiro, Fish and karate, Awotter, SouthernNights, Nivix, Celestianpower, Gurch, Spencerk, Scimitar, DVdm, Korg, Antiuser, Bgwhite, Roboto de Ajvol, YurikBot, Wavelength, Pile0nades, Alma Pater, Joewright, Much- ness, Gaius Cornelius, Ugur Basak, Big Brother 1984, NawlinWiki, Wiki alf, Mipadi, Leutha, Apokryltaros, Malcolma, Diotti, RUL3R, Cheeser1, DeadEyeArrow, Bota47, Brisvegas, Black Falcon, Ccgrimm, Pegship, Pawyilee, Closedmouth, GraemeL, Brz7, Syntax82, Gar- ion96, Jonathan.s.kt, NeilN, Stumps, Veinor, Jasonbub, SimoPen, SmackBot, Elonka, Moeron, Brianyoumans, InverseHypercube, Dav- ewild, Coder9, Baby Jenga, Hardyplants, Strummel, Xaosflux, Yamaguchi, Gilliam, Hmains, Betacommand, Bluebot, Don Jon Hunt, Snori, MalafayaBot, Campcase, Nbarth, Onorem, Skidude9950, Essaywriting, BearFriend, Ww2censor, Rrburke, Garoth, Zvar, Addshore, Amazins490, Essent, Decltype, PointyOintment, Dreadstar, Dacoutts, Lcarscad, Richard0612, Kukini, Byelf2007, SashatoBot, Nishkid64, AThing, Ram32110, Kuru, General Ization, Žiga, SarahTeach, IronGargoyle, Mr. Vernon, JHunterJ, Stwalkerster, Bizznazz, The2aces, MTSbot~enwiki, Hu12, OnBeyondZebrax, Iridescent, Michaelbusch, JohnAldis, Sahuagin, Tawkerbot2, Megannnn, Galo1969X, THF, Green caterpillar, WeggeBot, Avillia, Neelix, Clarkstooksbury, Cydebot, Evenmadderjon, Beta Trom, Steel, Mato, Medovina, Dancter, DumbBOT, Chrislk02, Bookgrrl, Omicronpersei8, Canada Kid, Satori Son, JamesAM, Thijs!bot, Epbr123, D4g0thur, Louisab, MrFire, Ishdarian, Hazmat2, Andyjsmith, Mojo Hand, Marek69, Dfrg.msc, Sturm55, Pcbene, Wikiwikibangbang, Sean William, AntiVandal- Bot, Cultural Freedom, Sofia Roberts, Seaphoto, Opelio, Mal4mac, 2bornot2b, Spencer, Elaragirl, AubreyEllenShomo, JAnDbot, Leuko, MER-C, Xoyitos, PhilKnight, LittleOldMe, Yahel Guhan, Stubbleboy, Bongwarrior, VoABot II, Junie dilitori, Libroschico, Dekimasu, Hullaballoo Wolfowitz, Fwenterprises, JNW, Kim Dent-Brown, Ling.Nut, Lucyin, Tedickey, WODUP, Froid, Animum, Sarita2380, 28421u2232nfenfcenc, Allstarecho, David Eppstein, ArmadilloFromHell, DerHexer, JaGa, Esanchez7587, Wayne Miller, Ravenclaw21, Wassupwestcoast, S3000, FisherQueen, Flowanda, Hdt83, MartinBot, NAHID, R'n'B, CommonsDelinker, Ibn Battuta, Pomte, J.delanoy, The dark lord trombonator, Mange01, Trusilver, Bogey97, Anderswiki, Uncle Dick, Maurice Carbonaro, Homie3333, Acalamari, Tokyo- girl79, Skullketon, Endoftime5301, Dmitri Yuriev, Bushcarrot, NewEnglandYankee,In Transit, Sd31415, Jorfer, Vanessa11, Jevansen, Bonadea, Useight, Vinsfan368, Gertrudethetramp, RJASE1, Vranak, Sparpapers, Timotab, VolkovBot, ABF, Indubitably, Cyberlibrarian, Philip Trueman, DoorsAjar, TXiKiBoT, Oshwah, Technopat, GDonato, Miranda, Ann Stouter, Captain Wikify, Charbroil, AlysTarr, Jor- dan1414, Elphion, Leafyplant, Wiae, Matthew9890, Graymornings, Anti plagiarism group, Falcon8765, Enviroboy, Spinningspark, Insan- ity Incarnate, Phaseinduction, Monty845, LuigiManiac, Kewlrockingurl2, Discdeath, IndulgentReader, NHRHS2010, D. Recorder, Ponyo, EJF, SieBot, StAnselm, Mustafa savas, Moonriddengirl, Chinese3126, Jauerback, KassandraLA, Tunawalksitout, VVVBot, Liszter, Josh the Nerd, Dawn Bard, Caltas, RJaguar3, Tehuberness, Fz81z6, France3470, Keilana, Happysailor, Flyer22 Reborn, Oda Mari, Sterry2607, JetLover, Oxymoron83, Steven Crossin, Mayalld, Astrale01, Ranjuse, 12612LI, Sunrise, StaticGull, Cyfal, Circasix, Superbeecat, Phnom Penh Punks, Dukered, ClueBot, David thomp86, The Thing That Should Not Be, Thriceplus, Kaiseralexander, Infrasonik, Cygnis insig- nis, TheOldJacobite, SuperHamster, Blenky119, Hash0123, Excirial, Nymf, Alexbot, Dudeman4098, 12 Noon, Westcoast14, Emetaphor, NuclearWarfare, Lunchscale, Kipper627, Jotterbot, Hotgunzzz, Razorflame, Antiquary, Kakofonous, Kikos, SoxBot III, LheaJLove, Mael- hugo, DumZiBoT, Boykovladimir, Kes321, XLinkBot, Soledad22, Roxy the dog, Gonzonoir, Candyplatypus, Stickee, Wingoboy, Avoided, NellieBly, Yatoven, HexaChord, Llangwmboy, Freshco, Albambot, Addbot, Grayfell, Masterchiefslayer, MoralityWins, Non-dropframe, Otisjimmy1, Opus88888, Innv, Ronhjones, Jncraton, CanadianLinuxUser, Fluernutter, West.andrew.g, Tassedethe, Numbo3-bot, Issyl0, Tide rolls, Verbal, Gail, Legobot, Luckas-bot, ZX81, Yobot, Kegan123, Themfromspace, Pink!Teen, Tohd8BohaithuGh1, II MusLiM HyBRiD II, Victoriaearle, Cloudstrife11, SD93981, Dan writerwiki, Gernumbli, Sumeshn- armath, AnomieBOT, Killiondude, Jim1138, Piano non troppo, AdjustShift, Kingpin13, Aoszkar, Materialscientist, E2eamon, GB fan, Neurolysis, Surigat, Justaperfectday, Xqbot, Melmann, HN45, GrandMattster, Nasnema, Schrupp42, Wikicrat, 94knux, Almabot, Grou- choBot, RibotBOT, Mathonius, Lecturermo, Moxy, Celuici, Cosmos111, VS6507, SuperFunmachine, Alxeedo, DMaturski, DivineAlpha, Fuzzon, Pinethicket, I dream of horses, 1hotmyself2, Anatomicas chicken, Some1 forget, A8UDI, RedBot, MastiBot, Meaghan, Vardhman IAS, Beao, DonnieDD, Riccardo.fabris, Inlandmamba, ActivExpression, Briannew220, Emythmakers, FoxBot, TobeBot, Johm Brown, Mono, Æk, Cjm13, Lotje, Vrenator, Aiken drum, Bj10soccer, Jerd10, Tbhotch, Onel5969, Mean as custard, EonLinE, TjBot, Marylgo- ff lem99, DASHBot, EmausBot, John of Reading, Orphan Wiki, Stryn, Infinite.marketing1, RA0808, Toxiz77, Mister.mansour, Essayfor, Wikipelli, Maychill101, Kenneth131, Roy singleton, Bamyers99, Cymru.lass, Prabinepali, Joelider, Prathamesh Patki, Cit helper, TyA, L Kensington, Donner60, ChuispastonBot, Ajstov, Rocketrod1960, Special Cases, Petrb, N0102855, ClueBot NG, Cwmhiraeth, Kevin- dement, Peacock.Lane, CocuBot, Trevordoe, Satellizer, Jacobadam, Edpd2010, Marechal Ney, Widr, Morganl12, Mdog123, Gotapoison, Ling.Nut2, Helpful Pixie Bot, Mark Caesar B. Rosales, HMSSolent, Titodutta, Jeraphine Gryphon, Lowercase sigmabot, BG19bot, Ar- navchaudhary, TGilmour, Smallerjim, Gomada, KieranFlores, PhnomPencil, MusikAnimal, Zincmasterflexx314159, Mark Arsten, Ad- venturousSquirrel, Altaïr, Aranea Mortem, Bookworm40, Qwekiop147, 2QriS, Totempaw, Essaytask, Jznas$567, Anbu121, Azn831kd, Jonadin93, Lindawilliams01, Suncatcher 13, The Illusive Man, ChrisGualtieri, Coryandrewtaylor, Hmainsbot1, Lugia2453, SFK2, Megan Cruz, 93, Telfordbuck, Everettes1, Faizan, Taniya20a, Sonia-ds, Camyoung54, Jethawk1000, Lingzhi, Everymorning, Zevo99, BentonR, Haminoon, KALLAIVENKAT, Essayonline, Ginsuloft, Bloomyebooks, Jackmcbarn, Nantanie, Salmaodesk, Salmaislambd, Urpflanze- Jetzt, Essssayworld, Alicejoseph, Robinson02, Ancy philip, Richardeoverturf, 7Sidz, Jacobgonzales, Jetskievan, Winsetailor, Melcous, Mmglaca, Zehs, Tigercompanion25, Dintomas271, JePalmer67, Mhanski, Kattie-mcmahan, Scarlettail, AndrewAlpert4, Kinetic37, Qw- ff ertyxp2000, GianCarloIT, Gertrude003, 50guppy, MargaretByrd, Pauljoseph33, Crystallizedcarbon, Loraof, Editor in disguise 123, Robin- pcharlton, Rolandcharcker, Some Gadget Geek, Wademick, ScrapIronIV, Authenticessays, Elliefrench, Ryanfleshman, Sarakfeely, Rehan reza 2203, EssaysApps, DJ Dragon104, Johnston10, Eyo0bball, KasparBot, Alicia882, Jeraphine, Dr. Bigboi, Eagle-essays, CAPTAIN RAJU, Aaroncgray, Kebede447, White Arabian mare, Leodon12, Lk;asdfjlk;afljiarihparwghip, Matias Syawish and Anonymous:945 ff Glane23, Essayexpert, The Vandal Warrior,

9. 12.2 Images 9 12.2 Images • File:Ambox_globe_content.svg Source: Public domain Contributors:Own work, using File:Information icon3.svg and File:Earth clip art.svg Original artist: penubag • File:An_Essay_on_the_Principle_of_Population.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/5/5b/An_Essay_on_ the_Principle_of_Population.jpg License: Public domain Contributors:Transferred from en.wikipedia to Commons. Original artist:The original uploader was Lupo at English Wikipedia • File:Commons-logo.svg Source:https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg License: ? Contributors:? Original artist:? • File:Czythumbur.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/5/5d/Czythumbur.jpg License: CC BY-SA 3.0 Contrib- utors:Own work Original artist:PITER • File:Edit-clear.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/f/f2/Edit-clear.svg License: Tango! Desktop Project.Original artist: The people from the Tango! project. And according to the meta-data in the file, specifically: “Andreas Nilsson, and Jakub Steiner (although minimally).” • File:Essais_Titelblatt_(1588).png Source:https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/b/b6/Essais_Titelblatt_%281588%29.png License:Public domain Contributors: Scan aus: Michel de Montaigne –-Essais. Erste moderne Gesamtübersetzung von Hans Stilett, Frank- furt am Main: Eichborn Verlag 1998 S. 568 Erläuterung:S. 569 ISBN 3-8218-4472-8 Original artist:Michel de Montaigne († 1592) • File:Harper’{}s_February_(1895).jpeg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/7/7a/Harper%27s_February_ %281895%29.jpeg License: Public domain Contributors: This image is available from the New York Public Library's Digital under the digital ID 1131252: digitalgallery.nypl.org → digitalcollections.nypl.org Original artist: Edward Penfield • File:Huahine,_French_Polynesia,_Image_-_Scott_Williams.jpg Huahine%2C_French_Polynesia%2C_Image_-_Scott_Williams.jpg License: CC BY 2.5 Contributors: Transferred from en.wikipedia; transferred to Commons by User:Oxyman using CommonsHelper.Original artist:Original uploader was Sba2 at en.wikipedia • File:Locke_Essay_1690.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/1/18/Locke_Essay_1690.jpg License: Public do- main Contributors:Originally from de.wikipedia; description page is/was here. Original artist:The original uploader was Olaf Simons at German Wikipedia • File:Wikibooks-logo-en-noslogan.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/df/Wikibooks-logo-en-noslogan. svg License:CC BY-SA 3.0 Contributors:Own work Original artist:User:Bastique, User:Ramac et al. https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/b/bd/Ambox_globe_content.svg License: Public domain Contributors: The Library Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/c/c4/ 12.3 Content license • Creative Commons Attribution-Share Alike 3.0