INTRODUCTION TO PSYCHOLOGY

1. INTRODUCTION TO PSYCHOLOGY MIDTERM REVIEW Chapters 1-6

2. Chapter 1Foundations • What is psychology? • Psychology is the scientific study of our thoughts, feelings and behaviors • What is an “approach” or “perspective” in psychology? • An approach or perspective in psychology is a particular view as to why, and how, it is we think, feel, and behave as we do

3. Chapter 1Foundations • What is Behavioral Psychology? • Behavioral Psychology is basically interested in how our behavior results from the stimuli both in the environment and within ourselves. • Who are the most known Behavioral Psychologists? • Pavlov, Thorndike, Skinner, Watson

4. Chapter 1Foundations • What is Biological Perspective? • The biological approach believes us to be as a consequence of our genetics and physiology. It is the only approach in psychology that examines thoughts, feelings, and behaviors from a physical point of view.

5. Chapter 1Foundations • What is Evolutionary Psychology? • Evolutionary psychology focus on how evolution has shaped the mind and behavior • What is Developmental Psychology? • Developmental psychology, also known as Human Development, is the scientific study of progressive psychological changes that occur in human beings as they age.

6. Chapter 1Foundations • What is Psychodynamic Approach? • Sigmund Freud was the founder of the psychodynamic approach to psychology. This school of thought emphasized the influence of the unconscious mind on behavior. • What is Cognitive Approach? • Focus on our information processes of perception, attention, language, memory, and thinking, and how they influence our thoughts, feelings and behaviors.

7. Chapter 1Scientific Research • What is the aim of the psychological studies? • The goals of psychological studies are to describe, explain, predict, and perhaps influence mental processes or behavior. • What is a scientific research? • The scientific method is a set of principles and procedures that are used by researchers to develop questions, collect data, and reach conclusions.

8. Chapter 1Scientific Research • How are research methods in psychology are divided? • Research methods that are experimental in design include the laboratory, field and quasi-experiment. Non-experimental methods include the observational, survey, interview and case study methods.

9. Chapter 1Scientific Research • What is a “naturalistic observation” method? • It means, observing behavior in their natural environment.

10. Chapter 1Scientific Research • What are the advantages and disadvantages of “naturalistic observation” method? • Advantages • high degree of realism because are in natural environments, data on large number of variables can be collected at the same time, researcher doesn't have as great an impact on the study as he/she may in other strategies • Disadvantages • variables not manipulated by the researcher, unable to infer causality, measurement of variables less precise than in laboratory

11. Chapter 1Scientific Research • What is a correlational study? • Correlation means relationship, so the purpose of a correlational study is to determine if a relationship exists, what direction the relationship is, and how strong it is.It can not make any assumptions of cause and effect (no causation).

12. Chapter 1Scientific Research • What are the possible results of correlational study? • There are three possible results of a correlational study: a positive correlation:Both variables increase or decrease at the same time (ex:more eating more weight) a negative correlation: Indicates that as the amount of one variable increases, the other decreases (and vice versa) (ex: more smoking, less healthy) no correlation: Indicates no relationship between the two variables.(ex: more study,more tall you get)

13. Chapter 1Scientific Research • What are the advantages and disadvantages of correlational study? • Advantages • shows if two or more variables are related • allows general predictions • used both in natural and laboratory settings • Disadvantages • Does not permit identification of cause and effect

14. Chapter 1Scientific Research • What is an experimental study? • In an experiment, a researcher manipulates or changes a particular variable under controlled conditions while observing resulting changes in another variable or variables.

15. Chapter 1Scientific Research • What is a dependant and independant variable? • Independent Variable (IV) – the variable that is manipulated by the experimenter (input variable)-effects the experimenter wishes to examine. • Dependent Variable (DV) – the outcome variable (results of the experiment)-experimenter wants to find out if this variable depends on some other factor.

16. Chapter 1Scientific Research • How many groups are there in experimental studies? • The control group: made up of individuals who are randomly assigned to a group but do not receive the treatment. The measures takes from the control group are then compared to those in the experimental group to determine if the treatment had an effect. • The experimental group: made up of individuals who are randomly assigned to the group and then receive the treatment. The scores of these participants are compared to those in the control group to determine if the treatment had an effect.

17. Chapter 1Scientific Research • How are the experimental studies carried out? • The researcher manipulates the independent variable and observes the dependent variable. The dependent variable may be affected by changes in the independent variable. In other words, the dependent variable depends (or is thought to depend) on the independent variable.

18. Chapter 1Scientific Research • What are the advantages and disadvantages of experimental studies? • Advantages • allows researcher to control the situation • Permits researcher to identify cause and effect • Disadvantages • situation is artificial and can not be always generalised to the real world • sometimes difficult to avoid experimenter effects

19. Chapter 2Evolution and the Biological Roots of Behavior • What is Darwin’s theory of evolution? • Certain differences among individuals are adaptive. The individuals who possess the adaptive characteristics are more likely to survive and reproduce in the environment into which they are born. Some adaptive differences among individuals are inherited.

20. Chapter 2Evolution and the Biological Roots of Behavior • What is Darwin’s theory of evolution? Cont’d... The environment does not contain enough resources to support all individuals. A struggle for existence occurs among individuals; those who possess the most adaptive characteristics, by definition, win the struggle. Individuals who survive and reproduce pass on their adaptive characteristics to their offspring, who are more inclined to inherit these adaptive traits than the offspring of parents who do not possess them.

21. Chapter 2Evolution and the Biological Roots of Behavior • What is a “set point”? • a weight the body tries to maintain (the target) • What are the Built-in systems (organs) for regulating food intake? • Liver • Hypothalamus • Stomach and Duodenum • Adipose Tissue

22. Chapter 2Evolution and the Biological Roots of Behavior • Why are there so many organs for regulating food in take? • Safety provided by backup systems • If one system fails, the organism is still protected • Different signals monitor different aspects of our nutritional needs • Leptin-longer term needs • Others (cues from stomach)-hour-by-hour energy requirement variations

23. Chapter 2Evolution and the Biological Roots of Behavior • What are the parts of our nervous system”, explain... • Central Nervous System (CNS) • The brain and spinal cord • Peripheric Nervous System (PNS) • System of nerves outside of the brain andspinal cord • Send control to the glands and smoothmuscles • Controls internal organs, usually not undervoluntary control

24. Chapter 2Evolution and the Biological Roots of Behavior • What are the parts of “autonomic nervous system”? Explain... • Sympathetic:Triggered when bodytemperature is too low. Revives up body activityto prepare forrigorous activity. Increased heart rate, slowing down of peristalsis for not using energy during digestion Vasoconstriction (Contraction of skins capillaries) • Parasympathetic: Triggered whenbody’s temperatureistoo high. Restored body’sinternal activities, Cardio slowing, speeds up peristalsis, vasolidation (Widening of skin’s capillaries)

25. Chapter 2Evolution and the Biological Roots of Behavior • What kind of internal adjustments happen when we feel threathened? • Sympathetic branch of ANS activated • Prepares body for immediate, intense activity. Surge of adrenaline released

26. Chapter 2Evolution and the Biological Roots of Behavior • What is the difference between male and female aggression? • The male is the far more aggressive sex. This gender difference holds only for physical aggression. Testosterone (the male sex hormone) is associated with physical aggressiveness in many species. Males use physical aggression (pushing and punching). Females use social aggression (spreading gossip and rumors, isolating unwanted friends).

27. Chapter 2Evolution and the Biological Roots of Behavior • What is territoriality? • Acquisition and protection of resources, usually territory: source of most aggression. Often expressed in humans as “personal space” preferences. Vary by culture; much is learned

28. Chapter 2Evolution and the Biological Roots of Behavior • How do we learn to be aggressive? • Explicit learning: someone demands or teaches us • Implicit: we observe • Seems to be causal; when we observe violence, we become violent

29. Chapter 3The Brain and the Nervous System • How is the nervous system studied? • Clinical observation • Observing the change in behavior after a brain damage • Neuropsychology • what happens to behavior when brain structures are damaged • Experimental techniques • Lesioning brain structures, observing consequences • Transcranial magnetic stimulation: temporary loss of brain function in isolated areas near surface of brain (just under scalp)

30. Chapter 3The Brain and the Nervous System • What are neuroimaging techniques used for? • To examine structures and functioning of brain • What are the types of neuroimaging techniques? • CE, MRI, fMRI, EEG

31. Chapter 3The Brain and the Nervous System • What is a CT technique? • Images created from multiple x-ray images of brain. It only shows structure. • What are functional neuroimaging techniques? • fMRI and EEG

32. Chapter 3The Brain and the Nervous System • What are the names and functions of lobes of the Cortex? • Frontal Lobes—receive and coordinate messages from other lobes as well as motor control, speech and higher functions • Parietal Lobes—receives information about pressure, pain, touch and temperature • Temporal Lobes—hearing, language comprehension, memory and some emotional control • Occipital Lobes—vision and visual perception

33. Chapter 3The Brain and the Nervous System • What is Corpus Collosum? • The Cerebral Cortex is divided into two hemispheres (left and right) connected by the Corpus Collosum • What are the functions of left and right brain (Lateralization)? • Left Brain: Language Functions (speaking, reading, writing, and understanding language), analytical Functions (mathematics, physical sciences), right-hand touch • Right Brain: Non-verbal abilities (music, art, perceptual and spatial manipulation, facial recognition), some language comprehension, left-hand touch

34. Chapter 3The Brain and the Nervous System • What is Broca’s and Wernicke’s area? Broca’s Area • an area of the left frontal lobe that directs the muscle movements involved in speech (speech production) • Wernicke’s Area • an area of the left temporal lobe involved in language comprehension and expression (speech comprehension)

35. Chapter 3The Brain and the Nervous System • What is apraxia? • inability to initiate or carry out learned complex (2+ steps) motor action • What is agnosia? • inability to identify familiar objects(persons, sounds, shapes or smells) using the affected sense

36. Chapter 3The Brain and the Nervous System • What is brain “plasticity”? • Plasticity means “Subject to alteration”. Historically, nervous system deemed NOT plastic. New evidenceshows that neurons can change, form new connections with other neurons, even can take the place of the damaged cells in the brain. As a result, the brain itself can entirely change.

37. Chapter 5 Perception • What are the dimensions on our retinal image? • Width and height • What makes us see objects as three-dimensional? • Depth perception: Ability to see three-dimensional space and to accurately judge distances

38. Chapter 5 Perception • What are the types of depth cues? • Binocular (two eyes) • Monocular(one eye) • What is “binocular disparity”? • We compare the retinal image in one eye to the retinal image in the other; they differ: each eye is a slightly different distance from an object in the world. The disparity between the views serves as a powerful cue for depth

39. Chapter 5 Perception • What are Monocular cues? • Interposition:When one object partly blocks your view of another, you perceive the partially blocked object as farther away • Linear Perspective:Parallel lines that are known to be the same distance apart appear to grow closer together, or converge, as they recede into the distance • Texture Gradients:The texture of objects tend to become smoother as the object gets farther away, suggesting that more detailed textured objects are closer.  • Relative size:Larger objects are perceived as being closer to the viewer, and smaller objects as being farther away • Light and shadow: the location of the shadow • Motion parallax: relative velocity of objects moving across the retina of a moving person

40. Chapter 5 Perception • What is “size constancy”? • Refers to our ability to see objects as maintaining the same size even when our distance from them makes things appear larger or smaller. • What is “shape constancy? • Perceiving objects as having a stable or unchanging shape regardless of changes in the retinal image resulting from differences in viewing angle

41. Chapter 5 Perception • What is “apparent motion”? • When intervals between images occur at correct timing (not too far apart in time) we perceive motion

42. Chapter 5 Perception • What is “Gestalt Psychology”? • The German word "Gestalt" roughly means to "whole" or "form" . According to Gestalt psychologists, “The whole is greater than the sum of its parts.”It means, in order to interpret what we receive through our senses, we attempt to organize this information into certain groups. Therefore, sense of shape is derived from the whole, not the sum of its parts

43. Chapter 5 Perception • What are Gestalt principles of organization? • Issues of figure/ground: we seem to have an innate tendency to pereive one aspect of an event as the figure or fore-ground and the other as the ground or back-ground. • Similarity: we will tend to group similar items together. • Proximity: Things that are close together as seen as belonging together • Good continuation: We tend to perceive things in good form • Closure: if something is missing in an otherwise complete figure, we will tend to add it • “subjective contours”

44. Chapter 5 Perception • What does classical approach to perception tells about the role of the perceiver? • In classical approach to perception emphasis is on the active, constructive role of the perceiver, who routinely: • Resolves ambiguous figures • Determines identity of objects based on contextual clues and previous knowledge • Determines identity of objects based on contextual clues

45. Chapter 5 Perception • How do “illusions” happen? • Cues sometimes cause an over-estimate or under-estimate; slight over/under interpretations can cause us to misinterpret the information we receive

46. Chapter 6 Learning • What is “learning”? • Learning is a relatively permanent change in an organism’s behavior due to past experience • What is “habituation”? • Decline of organism’s response to stimulus once that stimulus becomes familiar; simply getting used to... Organism does not learn anything new from that event

47. Chapter 6 Learning • What is classical conditoning? • Organism comes to associate two stimuli; a neutral one and one that already causes a reflexive response

48. Chapter 6 Learning • What is unconditioned stimulus and unconditioned response? • Unconditioned Stimulus (US) • stimulus that unconditionally--automatically and naturally--triggers a response • Unconditioned Response (UR) • unlearned, naturally occurring response to the unconditioned stimulus

49. Chapter 6 Learning • What is conditioned stimulus and conditioned response? • Conditioned Stimulus (CS) • originally irrelevant and neutral stimulus that, after association with an unconditioned stimulus, comes to trigger a conditioned response • Conditioned Response (CR) • learned response to a previously neutral conditioned stimulus

50. Chapter 6 Learning • In Pavlov’s experiment what is US, UR, CS and CR? • US: food • UR: salivation • CS: bell • CR: salivation