Structured Query Language (SQL)

1. Structured Query Language (SQL) CIS*2450 Advanced Programming Concepts

2. Structured Query Language • SQL consists of a set of commands for defining, accessing, and managing relational databases. • In 1970, E.F. Codd at IBM Research Labs in San Jose, California published “A Relational Model of Data for Large Shared Data Banks” (Communications of the ACM, Vol. 13, No. 6, June 1970) in which he described a set of abstract principles for database management - the relational model. The field of relational database technology has its origins in that paper.

3. Structured Query Language • This research described several relational languages which implement some/all of the features of the abstract relational model. One of these languages which was created in 1974-75 was the “Structured English Query Language” (SEQUEL), defined by Donald Chamberlin and others at IBM Labs. The first IBM prototype was called SEQUEL-XRM (1974-75).

4. Structured Query Language • A revised version of SEQUEL-XRM was defined in 1976-77 and named SEQUEL/Z. The name was changed to SQL for legal reasons. • A prototype of this became operational in 1977 called System R. • Due to the success of System R, vendors rushed to create their own SQL products. The Oracle database was released before IBM's own product.

5. Structured Query Language • In 1982, the American National Standards Institute (ANSI) chartered its Database Committee (X3H2) to develop a standard for a relational language. In 1986, the X3H2 proposal was ratified by ANSI which consisted essentially of the IBM dialect of SQL. • In 1987, the ANSI standard was accepted as an international standard by the International Organization for Standards (ISO).

6. Structured Query Language • The original standard is also known as SQL/86. • Enhancements were made over time • SQL/89 - included an Integrity Enhancement Feature • SQL/92 - ISO and ANSI developed a revised standard also known as SQL2 • SQL/99 - “SQL3” incorporates object-oriented access • A consortium of vendors known as the SQL Access Group has been working to enhance interoperability across different systems

7. SQL as a Standard • Since SQL is such a pervasive standard, let us review some information on standards - their good points and their not so good points.

8. Are Standards Good? -- Good Points • Standards reduce training costs. • They promote application portability. • Standards promote application longevity. • Standards have a reasonably long life, so applications using them should as well.

9. Are Standards Good? -- Good Points • Intersystem Communications • are more easily achieved. • Different database management systems can function equally well on a single database if they support the same standard interface. • Customer Choice • If products support the same interface then customers can focus on the implementation that best meets their own needs without having to choose among different interfaces.

10. Are Standards Good? -- Bad Points • Standards can stifle creativity - system implementers may be prevented from providing “the best” solution because the standard prescribes some alternative. • SQL has some flaws in its design, some of which are considered severe.

11. SQL Overview • SQL is used to define, manipulate, and control data in relational databases. • A relational database is one which is perceived as a collection of tables by the user. • A table is an unordered collection of rows.

12. A Suppliers-and-Part Database Example • Tables • S : suppliers • P : parts (and where to ship an order) • SP : shipment of parts by suppliers

13. Table S SNO SNAME STATUS CITY Primary Key = SNO

14. Table P PNO PNAME COLOUR WEIGHT CITY Primary Key = PNO

15. Table SP SNO PNO QTY Primary Key = SNO and PNO

16. Tables • Tables can be thought of as files, with rows representing records and the columns as fields. • The SQL standard always uses the terms table, row and column. • SQL statements can be invoked either interactively or from within an application. • Interactive SQL generally displays the results on the screen. • Invocation from a program means the results are made available as input to the program.

17. The Select Statement • SQL Query: SELECT S.CITY FROM S WHERE S.SNO = 'S4' • Result: CITY ------- London

18. SELECT • SELECT is used for data retrieval. • FROM indicates the table from which to retrieve the data. • WHERE is used to describe column features that are desired in the retrieved data. • No WHERE statement will cause all rows to be returned. • You can use all of the standard comparisons (<,<=,>,>=,=). • Literal strings must appear in single quotes.

19. Creating Tables • Empty tables are constructed using the CREATE TABLE statement. • Data must be entered later using INSERT. CREATE TABLE S ( SNO CHAR(5), SNAME CHAR(20), STATUS DECIMAL(3), CITY CHAR(15), PRIMARY KEY (SNO) )

20. Creating Tables • A table name and unique column names must be specified. • Columns which are defined as primary keys will never have two rows with the same key value. • Primary key may consist of more than one column (values unique in combination) called composite key.

21. Creating Tables CREATE TABLE SP ( SNO CHAR(5), PNO CHAR(5), QTY DECIMAL(5), PRIMARY KEY (SNO,PNO), FOREIGN KEY (SNO) REFERENCES S, FOREIGN KEY (PNO) REFERENCES P ) • Foreign keys refer to other tables. • Any key in SP.SNO must also appear in S.SNO and any key in SP.PNO must appear in P.PNO - a shipment cannot exist unless the supplier and part also exist.

22. Data Manipulation • There are four basic SQL data manipulation operations. • SELECT - retrieves data • INSERT - add a new row • UPDATE - change values in existing records • DELETE - remove row(s)

23. INSERT INSERT INTO SP ( SNO, PNO, QTY ) VALUES ( 'S4', 'P1', 1000 ) • Row added to Table SP.

24. UPDATE UPDATE S SET STATUS = 2 * S.STATUS WHERE S.CITY = 'London' • Status doubled for suppliers in London (S1 and S4)

25. DELETE DELETE FROM P WHERE P.WEIGHT > 15 • Rows deleted from P where WEIGHT > 15 (P2 and P3)

26. SELECT • SELECT has the general form SELECT-FROM-WHERE. • The result is another (new) table.

27. SELECT DISTINCT P.COLOUR, P.CITY FROM P WHERE P.WEIGHT > 10 AND P.CITY <> 'Paris' results in the table, COLOUR CITY ---------------- Red London Blue Rome [ Red London ] - eliminated because of DISTINCT statement which removes multiple copies of rows SELECT

28. SELECT • DISTINCT - no duplicate rows. • No WHERE - all rows of FROM table are returned. • SELECT * is short for select the entire row (all columns).