Nikkeijin in Japan: Institutional Framework and Issues of Reintegration David Chiavacci

1. Nikkeijin in Japan: Institutional Framework and Issues of ReintegrationDavid Chiavacci Third Consultative Meeting of the MIREM Project Robert Schuman Centre for Advanced Studies, European University Institute Florence, 3-4 November 2008

2. Introduction • From late 1980s onwards, significant return migration of former Japanese emigrants and their descendants (Nikkeijin, 日系人) from South America to Japan • Today, about 400,000 Nikkeijin residing in Japan • Return migration not accompanied by national integration policy • Integration policy for Nikkeijin on local level, but huge problems concerning economic and social integration • Recently, new and substantials initiatives concerning a national integration policy

3. Overview • Background of Return Migration to Japan • Nikkeijin in Japan: Problems regarding Reintegration • New National Policy Initiatives • Concluding Remarks

4. The Political Making of Return Migration to Japan Late 1980s, increasingly irregular foreign workers in Japan, debate about new immigration policy 1990 revision of Japanese immigration law (Immigration Control and Refugee Recognition Act, 出入国管理および難民認定法) Several minor changes Major point in the reform: new working visa for Japanese emigrants and their descendants up to the third generation Return migration of Nikkeijin of often seen as part of ethnic preference in Japanese immigration policy However, very complex policy making process Neither intended as an active immigration policy, nor regarded as a labor market policy by Japanese government

5. The Economic Context of Return Migration to Japan 1985-1993, “bubble economy” in Japan (high growth and labor shortage) Late 1980s, hyperinflation and economic crisis in many South American economies Return migration started already in late 1980s Private migration industry established at the time of the immigration reform in 1990 Large number of return migrants surprised Japanese officials Up to late 1990s primarily circular migration (出稼ぎ) by Nikkeijin, especially between Brazil and Japan

6. Number of registered Brazilian and Peruvian residents in Japan, 1987-2007 Source: Ministry of Justice.

7. Overview Background of Return Migration to Japan Nikkeijin in Japan: Problems regarding Reintegration New National Policy Initiatives Concluding Remarks

8. Juristic and Political Context of Nikkeijin Reintegration Large majority of Nikkeijin are not Japanese citizenship and have only very limited Japanese language abilities, but denizen status in Japan However, Japanese industry structurally depending on Nikkeijin as fundamental part of labor force Nikkeijin as contract and dispatched workers indispensable for achieving high flexibility in manufacturing (especially among secondary and tertiary subcontractors in automobile and electronics parts sectors) Integration policy No comprehensive national integration policy for return migrants Regional concentration of Nikkeijin in smaller cities around major industrial centers Active integration policy and support through NGOs on regional and local level

9. Labor Market and Social Security Nearly 80% of Nikkeijin indirectly employed on demand Contract with private temporary staff agencies Indirectly and temporarily hired as contract or dispatched workers Nikkeijin in South America regarded as model minority with high educational attainments However, very limited Japanese language abilities Level of human capital of Nikkeijin only very limited influence on their job opportunities and income Normally not integrated into social security systems About 10% of Nikkeijin enrolled in employees‘ health insurance and pension insurance system About 20-30% of Nikkeijin enrolled in Japanese national pension system Accident or sickness? Retirement?

10. Education System According to Japanese law, compulsory education for all children aged 6 to 15 in Japan, but foreign children exempted Many children of Nikkeijinnot integrated into (Japanese) education system E.g. Brazilian children: about 9,000 in Brazilian schools, 10,000 in Japanese schools, about 15,000 not enrolled in any school Problems in adaption to Japanese school system (language, educational level, behavior etc.) Some initiatives for foreign school children by Ministry of Education Assistance teacher and extra language classes for foreign children Still, 99% of Japanese school children graduate from high school, but up to 75% of Nikkeijin school children do not attend high school

11. Social and Political Participation Residence of Nikkeijin concentrated in social housing and tenement blocks in smaller industrial cities Some frictions (noise, garbage etc.), but overall quite smooth coexistence side by side with Japanese population Tendencies for local Nikkeijin enclaves Active integration policy on local level and support through NGOs Support for problems in everyday life through translation services, Japanese language classes Stressing multicultural community (Japanese festival and Brazilian carneval) In some municipalities council by foreign residence

12. Overview Background of Return Migration to Japan Nikkeijin in Japan: Problems regarding Reintegration New National Policy Initiatives Concluding Remarks

13. Demands and New Initiatives for National Integration Policy • Possibility of Nikkeijin becoming an uncoupled social underclass • Demand for stronger support and national integration policy by local administrations, NGOs etc. • Moreover, increasingly demand for active immigration policy in view of demographic development and (potential) labor shortage by economic interest groups • National integration policy generally regarded as precondition for more active immigration and foreign workers policy • New initiatives on national level • Compulsory education for foreign children • New legislation regarding foreign residents (scheduled for 2009) • Integration/Immigration Agency?

14. Overview Background of Return Migration to Japan Nikkeijin in Japan: Problems regarding Reintegration New National Policy Initiatives Concluding Remarks

15. Nikkeijin in Japan: Between Integration and Exclusion • Nikkeijin important part of renewed success story of Japanese industries and industrial productions • No full integration of Nikkeijin • Precarious position in labor market and not included in social welfare state • Social upward mobility seems very difficult • Integration efforts not helped by cultural differences and circular migration movements • Better integration on level of local society, but national integration policy crucial • Comprehensive national integration policy currently under construction • Brazilian Nikkeijin bridge to rising Brazil? (BRIC)