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Lecture 8 – Psyco 350, B1 Fall, 2011

Lecture 8 – Psyco 350, B1 Fall, 2011. N. R. Brown. Outline. Factors that influence Storage: Rehearsal Organization Generation Levels of Processing Encoding & Retrieval – context effects Independent Contexts Interactive Contexts Forgetting decay retrieval failure interference

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Lecture 8 – Psyco 350, B1 Fall, 2011

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  1. Lecture 8 – Psyco 350, B1Fall, 2011 N. R. Brown Psyco 350 Lec #8– Slide 1

  2. Outline • Factors that influence Storage: • Rehearsal • Organization • Generation • Levels of Processing • Encoding & Retrieval – context effects • Independent Contexts • Interactive Contexts • Forgetting • decay • retrieval failure • interference • Inhibition (directed forgetting) Psyco 350 Lec #8– Slide 2

  3. Craik & Lockhart’s Interperation • Cog system organized hierarchically • input processed @ different levels: sensory  semantic • product of earlier analysis is input to latter analysis • Memory trace “simply [a] record of those analysis” “deeper more semantic analysis yields records that are more durable.” =========================================== But why? Traces: • richer, more elaborate – “more stuff” • semantic encoding more distinctive Psyco 350 Lec #8 – Slide 3

  4. Criticisms of Levels Nelson (1977) : • circularity = there is no independent measure of depth in the framework • how can you rank order these “levels”? • Is it green? • Is it an animal? • Does it contain an R? • Is it GORF reversed? • Does it rhyme with DOG? Psyco 350 Lec #8 – Slide 4

  5. Value of Levels • places emphasis on processes • introduced a technique—incidental learning with an orienting task—for studying encoding processes • fits well with transfer appropriate processing view. Psyco 350 Lec #8 – Slide 5

  6. Context & Memory • Context: -- stimuli present “at the same time” as the target eventn = content + contextni + contextnj… Context encoded (almost) automatically w/ content • encoding context can serve as retrieval path • test context can serve as a retrieval cue General Principle: when test context ≈ study context,performance  Psyco 350 Lec #8 – Slide 6

  7. Two Types of Contexts • Independent • external – environmental, location • internal – physiological, emotional • Interactive • semantic: strawberry – JAM vs traffic – JAM Encoding Specificity Principle: “The probability of recalling an item at test depends on the similarity of its encoding at test and its encoding at study” -- Anderson, p 206 Psyco 350 Lec #8– Slide 7

  8. State-Dependent Memory General Approach for studying context effects: materials studied in StateX materials tested in StateX or StateY State-dependent memory effect observed when memory is better when study & test states match than when they mismatch. Psyco 350 Lec #8– Slide 8

  9. Context-Dependent Memory:Godden & Baddeley, 1975 Study X Test . land land underwater underwater =========================================== Participants: 16 divers Materials: 40 words Results: LL >> LU UU >> UL Psyco 350 Lec #8– Slide 9

  10. Mood-Congruent Memory Eich & Metcalfe (1989) • Induce mood by using music. • Read or generate during study Study-Test Design: Study X Test . happy happy sad sad Psyco 350 Lec #8– Slide 10

  11. Mood Congruence: Eich & Metcalf (1989) Results: • Generation Effect: • generate >> read • Mood Congruence: • H/H >> H/S • S/S >> S/H • “floor” effect for read condition? Psyco 350 Lec #8– Slide 11

  12. State-Dependent Memory: Alcohol Goodwin et al (1969) • Manipulation: 10 oz of 80 proof vodka; 24 hr study-test delay • Standard 2 X 2: (I)ntoxicated/I, S(ober)/S, I/S, S/I • Results: (a) S/S < SI; (b) I/I < I/S; (c) S/I < I/I • Point (C) encoding better when sober. Psyco 350 Lec #8– Slide 12

  13. State-Dependent Memory: Marijuana Eich et al (1975) • Manipulation: m(arijuana) vs t(obacco); 4 hr study-test delay. • Standard 2 X 2: m/m, t/t, m/t, t/m • Results: (a) t/t > t/m; (b) m/m >m/t; (c) t/m > m/m • Point (C) encoding better when straight. Psyco 350 Lec #8– Slide 13

  14. State-dependent Memory State-dependent effect strong for recall than recognition. • Reason: recall requires more cues, and state provides context cues Sober@study >> Blasted@study, regardless of test state. • Reason: attention, comprehension, & elaboration processes more effective when sober. Psyco 350 Lec #8– Slide 14

  15. Interactive Contexts General idea: • event traces encode meaning • meaning emerges from the meanings of the focal element and its semantic context. • retrieval cues that access encoded meaning will be more effective than those that do not Retrieval Cue: • A hint that can be used to evoke an item that has been learnt but cannot be spontaneously recalled Psyco 350 Lec #8– Slide 15

  16. Encoding Specificity w/ Interactive Contexts Thomson & Tulving (1970) Aim: demonstrate that recall depends on match between encoded and cued meaning. Materials: 24 word pairs • Design: Input Contexts (2) X Output Cues (3) Input Contexts: Strong: hot – COLD Weak: wind – COLD Output Cues: strong, weak, no-cue Psyco 350 Lec #8– Slide 16

  17. Results: Thomson & Craik (1970) • Recall best when input & output match • Mismatch misdirects search. Psyco 350 Lec #8– Slide 17

  18. LoP & Encoding Specificity Fisher & Craik (1977) Aim: Demonstrate LoP and ES in same Exp. Design: Encoding Task X Encoding Response X Retrieval Cue rhyme YES rhyme category NO category sentence sentence Psyco 350 Lec #8– Slide 18

  19. Fisher & Craik (1977): Encoding Tasks Target Word: train or house Encoding Tasks: rhyme: Does the word rhyme with brain? category: Is it a form of transportation? sentence: John took the ____ to Cleveland? Psyco 350 Lec #8– Slide 19

  20. Fisher & Craik (1977): Results LoP .22 .58 .51 • LoP Effect: • Category ≥ Sentence >> Rhyme Psyco 350 Lec #8– Slide 20

  21. Fisher & Craik (1977): Results .22 .58 .51 • LoP Effect: • Category ≥ Sentence >> Rhyme • Encoding Specificity : • encoding-retrieval cue matches > mismatches • example: Transfer Appropriate Processing – match re: processing • Why is cat/rhyme (43%) > rhyme/rhyme (40%)? Psyco 350 Lec #8– Slide 21

  22. Encoding & Retrieval: Main Points • Memory Trace is combination of the “stimulus” and the context. • Context broadly defined • environmental, physiological, semantic, procedural • Performance depends on: • encoding processes • similarity between study context & test context Psyco 350 Lec #8– Slide 22

  23. Forgetting – General Approaches • Decay – information in memory fades w/ time & disuse. “Memory trace spontaneously deteriorates over time.” -- A.B. • Retrieval failure – retrieval cues do not access sought after information. • Interference – retrieval of sought-after-information hindered by presence of other information. “memory either masks or obliterates other information” Psyco 350 Lec #8– Slide 23

  24. Ebbinghaus(1885): The 1st Forgetting Function • Task: learned lists of 13 CVCs to criterion (2 perfect runs through list). • Manipulation: Study-test delay • Dependent Variable: savings in relearning Psyco 350 Lec #8– Slide 24

  25. Ebbinghaus(1885): The 1st Forgetting Function • Main Findings: • rate of forgetting decreases w/ time • Interpretation: • forgetting driven by decay; information lost at a constant rate. Psyco 350 Lec #8– Slide 25

  26. Decay: In Principle Problem • Robust evidence for: • Proactive Interference • Retroactive Interference • To provide decay, it is necessary to: • control PI; all prior experience must be held constant • control RI; all subsequent experience must be help constant. Psyco 350 Lec #8– Slide 26

  27. Decay: The Consensus • "The definitive decay experiment is, as far, we know impossible... It is currently impossible to isolate the decay effect, or to separate it from interference... Even though it [Decay] is extremely controversial and has not been demonstrated to anyone's satisfaction, it [Decay] has been routinely incorporated as a subprocess into many recent memory models." -- Houston, pp. 246-247 • "Unfortunately it's [Decay Theory] wrong, at least as far as long-term memory is concerned." --Ashcraft, p.224 Psyco 350 Lec #8– Slide 27 : .

  28. Decay: Empirical Problems Very Long-term Memory (Permastore): • for high school classmates (Bahrick et al, 1975) • for foreign languages (Bahrick, 1984) Psyco 350 Lec #8– Slide 28

  29. Bahrick et al., 1975 Recognition of names & faces (almost) unaffected by passage of time. Psyco 350 Lec #8– Slide 29

  30. Bahrick, 1984 Forgetting halted after 3 years. Psyco 350 Lec #8– Slide 30

  31. Anderson's Defense of Decay • Decay Functions Exist A number of long-term forgetting functions look like power-law, decay functions – demonstrate that information is lost at a constant rate. • The Physiological Argument. “It may be that there is not explanation of decay at the purely psychological level....It has been shown that synaptic efficacy deteriorates with lack of use, and apparently this deterioration follows a power law. Thus, it may be that mechanism underlying the very powerful lawful functions." --Anderson, p. 175 Psyco 350 Lec #8– Slide 31

  32. Decay Functions in Autobiographical MemoryBrown et al. (in prep) Psyco 350 Lec #8– Slide 32

  33. Decay Functions in Autobiographical MemoryBrown et al. (in prep) • word-cue method: • respond to word cue w/ 1st AM that comes to mind. • estimate date of retrieved event • Participants: • age: 20-30 yrs old • locations: 7 countries Psyco 350 Lec #8– Slide 33

  34. Anderson's Defense of Decay • Decay Functions Exist A number of long-term forgetting functions look like power-law, decay functions – demonstrate that information is lost at a constant rate. • The Physiological Argument. “It may be that there is not explanation of decay at the purely psychological level....It has been shown that synaptic efficacy deteriorates with lack of use, and apparently this deterioration follows a power law. Thus, it may be that mechanism underlying the very powerful lawful functions." --Anderson, p. 175 Psyco 350 Lec #8– Slide 34

  35. Retrieval Failure • Premise: • Information not lost from memory. • Cause of forgetting: absence of correct cue. • forgetting from an Encoding Specificity perspective Psyco 350 Lec #8– Slide 35

  36. Retrieval Failure: A demonstration Tulving & Pearlstone (1966) Materials: 48 words – 12 categories X 4 instances Group: Uncued – free recall Cued: cued with the 12 category names Results: Cued (62%) > Uncued (40%) Conclusion: In uncued condition, information was available, but not accessible. Availability = probability information was stored Accessibility = degree to which info can be retrieved Psyco 350 Lec #8– Slide 36

  37. Interference Interference – retrieval of sought-after-information hindered by presence of other information. • Negative Transfer • Previously learning impedes new learning • Proactive Interference (PI) • Older knowledge impedes access to new knowledge • Interference forward in time • Retroactive Interference (RI) • New knowledge impedes access to old knowledge • Interference backward in time • Associative Interference • atemporal -- related knowledge competes with target Psyco 350 Lec #8– Slide 37

  38. Associative Interference: The Fan Effect Anderson (1974) Study: 26 sentence – The person is in the location. Test: Time recognition of presented & recombined sentences Design: sentences/person (1 or 2) X sentences/location (1 or 2) Psyco 350 Lec #8– Slide 38

  39. The Fan Effect: Anderson (1974) Design: sentences/person (1 or 2) X sentences/location (1 or 2) • The doctor is in the bank (1-1) • the fireman is in the park (1-2) • The lawyer is in the church (2-1) • The lawyer is in the park (2-2) Psyco 350 Lec #8– Slide 39

  40. Anderson (1974): Results • RT  60 msec/link i.e., additional links INTERFER w/ retrieval. • Explanation: • activation passed to target , as # of links  • Additional finding – “chunking” decreases fan effect. Psyco 350 Lec #8– Slide 40

  41. Studying PI & RI • Classic studies: paired associate learning • study: cue-target word pairs (CUP-tree) • test: given cue, recall target (CUP-???) • manipulate presence, timing & similarity of additional targets Psyco 350 Lec #8– Slide 41

  42. Studying PI & RI General Findings: • Cued Recall: Control > Experimental • Similarity Effects: the more similar B is C, the more server the interference. Psyco 350 Lec #8– Slide 42

  43. PI & RPI: Background Brown & Peterson Task Review • Task: learn triplet  filled delay  recall triplet • Finding: • recall drops off very rapidly w/ delay • Original Interpretation: • Forgetting caused by decay in STM • Forgetting indicates the rate of loss from STM • Alternative Interpretation (Keppel & Underwood): • Forgetting caused by PI from similar materials • Implication: PI should be reduced when new list differs from prior lists. Psyco 350 Lec #8– Slide 43

  44. Release from PI: Wickens (1972) • Task: Standard Brown-Peterson Task • Procedure: • Trials 1 though 3: triples drawn from same semantic category • Trial 4: triple drawn from different category Psyco 350 Lec #8– Slide 44

  45. Wickens (1972): Materials Psyco 350 Lec #8– Slide 45

  46. Wickens (1972): Results • PI  (recall ) across same-category trials. • when category changes, Recall  Release from PI • RPI  as similarity between initial category and new category  • Finding generalize to real-world material (news stories) Psyco 350 Lec #8– Slide 46

  47. Gunter, Berry, Clifford (1981): RPI w/ News Stories • Replicates Wickens with news stories. e.g., 3 sets of political stories  1 human interest story Psyco 350 Lec #8– Slide 47

  48. RPI: Activation-Discrimination Interpretation Activation: • Concepts activated when accessed • Activation decays rapidly Retrieval: search some (cued) portion of memory for most active concepts. -------------------------------------------------------------------------- PI:difficult to discriminate between many activated concepts. RPI: relatively easy to select active concepts among inactive ones. Psyco 350 Lec #8– Slide 48

  49. RI -- Recent learning impedes recall of prior material Slamecka (1960) – a lab demonstration Materials: 20-word long sentences drawn from text books. Study: Sentence present 1 word/3 seconds Test: Verbatim recall Design: # Learning Trials X # Interpolated Trials 2 0 4 4 8 8 Psyco 350 Lec #8– Slide 49

  50. Slamecka (1960): Results IMPORTANT: study-test delay constant across interpolation conditions • Recall  w/ # learning trials (rehearsal effect) • Recall  w/ # interpolated trials (RI) Psyco 350 Lec #8– Slide 50

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