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Kingdom of Bahrain Arabian Gulf University College of Medicine and Medical Sciences. General Surgery The Breast. Ali Jassim Alhashli. Anatomy. Breast is a modified sweat gland which is composed of : glandular, fibrous and adipose tissues. It lies on pectoralis major muscle and its fascia.
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Kingdom of BahrainArabian Gulf UniversityCollege of Medicine and Medical Sciences General Surgery The Breast Ali Jassim Alhashli
Anatomy • Breast is a modified sweat gland which is composed of: glandular, fibrous and adipose tissues. • It lies on pectoralis major muscle and its fascia. • Each mammary gland has 15-20 lobules, each of which has its own lactiferous duct that opens on the areola. • Suspensory ligament of the breast = Cooper’s ligament. • A portion of the breast extends to the axilla= tail of Spence. • The 4 quadrants of the breast: upper outer (site of 50% of breast cancer), lower outer, upper inner and lower inner. • Breast development: • It is derived from ectoderm milk streak. • Estrogen: for development of ducts. • Progesterone: for lobular development. • Blood supply of the breast: • Arterial supply: • Axillary artery: lateral thoracic artery + thoracoacromial artery. • Internal thoracic artery: anterior intercostal arteries + perforating branches. • Thoracic aorta: posterior intercostal arteries. • Venous drainage: lateral thoracic vein + internal thoracic vein + intercostal veins. • Lymphatic drainage: • Level-I: lateral to lateral border of pectoralis minor muscle. • Level-II: deep to pectoralis minor muscle. • Level-III: medial to medial border of pectoralis minor muscle. • Rotter’s node: between pectoralis major and pectoralis minor muscle. • 97% of lymphatic drainage of breast to → axillary lymph nodes. • 2% of lymphatic drainage of breast to → internal mammary lymph nodes. • Nipple, areola and lobule drain to → subareolar lymphatic plexus.
Innervation of the breast: • Supraclavicular (medial, intermediate and lateral) from C3 and C4. • Medial branches of thoracic intercostal nerve. • Lateral branches of thoracic intercostal nerve. • Neural structures encountered during major breast surgery: • Long thoracic nerve: innervates serratus anterior. If injured results in winged scapula. • Thoracodorsal nerve: innervates latissimusdorsi. If injured, one cannot push himself up from a sitting position and he will have weak adduction of upper extremities. • Medial and lateral pectoral nerves: innervate major and minor pectoral muscles. If injured result in wekaness of pectoral muscles. • Boundaries of mastectomy: • Superior: clavicle. • Inferior: inframammary fold. • Medial: sternum. • Lateral: latissimusdorsi. • Boundaries of axillary dissection: • Superior: axillary vein. • Posterior: long thoracic nerve. • Medial: medial to the medial border of pectoralis minor muscle. • Lateral: latissimusdorsi. Anatomy
Evaluation of A Palpable Breast Mass • If the age of your female patient is > 30 years and she presents with a breast mass → DO NOT JUMP IMMEDIATELY TO A CONCLUSION. Follow her with serial physical examinations and observe her for 2-4 weeks. • The only presentations which are non-suspicious of cancer: • A young female presenting with a cyclical changing mass with clear aspirate. • Lactating female presenting with erythematous, warm swelling of the breast. • Differential diagnoses of breast conditions: • Infectious/inflammatory: mastitis, Mondor’s disease or fat necrosis. • Benign lesions: fibroadenoma, fibrocystic changes, mammary duct ectasia, intraductalpapilloma and gynecomastia. • Pre-malignant disease: Ductal Carcinoma In Situ (DCIS) or Lobular Carcinoma In Situ (LCIS). • Malignant tumors: infiltrating ductal carcinoma, infiltrating lobular carcinoma, inflammatory breast carcinoma or Paget’s disease.
Infectious/Inflammatory Conditions of The Breast • Mastitis: • It is a superficial infection of the breast (cellulitis) caused by S.aureus or Streptococcus species. • Physical examination: focal erythematous, warm swelling. • Diagnosis: US to localize an abscess. If it is present, aspirate and send for Gram stain and culture. • Treatment: • Advice your patient to continue breast feeding but use a pump instead. • Cellulitis: antibiotics (anti-staphylococcal penicillins). • Abscess: drainage followed by antibiotics. • Fat necrosis: • There is a history of direct trauma to the breast in 50% of patients. • Physical examination: firm, irregular mass with varying tenderness (may or may be not tender). • Diagnosis and treatment: you have to take and excisional biopsy and send it for pathologic evaluation to exclude carcinoma.
Benign Diseases • Fibroadenoma: • Definition: it is a benign tumor which grossly looks white in color, well-circumscribed and smooth. • Features: it is the most common benign tumor in young females. It is more common among blacks. It is estrogen sensitive (there is increased tenderness during pregnancy). • Physical examination: firm, highly mobile, smooth mass. • Diagnosis: Fine-Needle Aspiration (FNA). • Treatment: • Asymptomatic; size > 2 cm → observe. • Symptomatic; size < 2 cm → surgical removal. • Mondor’s disease: • Definition: superficial thrombophlebitis of lateral thoracic or thoraco-epigastric vein. • Predisposing factors: surgery, infection, local trauma, excessive use of upper extremity. • Presentation: acute pain in axilla or superior aspect of lateral breast. • Physical exam: palpation of a tender cord. • Diagnosis: ultrasound. • Treatment: • Analgesia, warm compresses and limiting use of upper extremity. • Usually resolves within 2-6 weeks. If not → surgery.
Fibrocystic changes: • Physical examination: bilateral breast swelling and tenderness + areas of nodularity within fibrous breast tissue. Notice that it is related to the menstrual cycle. • Evaluation: • Serial physical examination with documentation. • Definitive diagnosis: biopsy with pathologic evaluation. • Treatment: • If there is no persistent mass: conservative management → NSAIDs (for pain), Oral contraceptives, danazol or tamoxifen. In addition, advice patient to avoid products containing xanthine (e.g. caffeine, tobacco and cola drinks). • If there is a single dominant cyst: aspirate fluid and send for cytology. If it is bloody → surgical excision. • If there is atypical ductal or lobular hyperplasia: surgical excision. • Mammary duct ectasia: • Definition: inflammation and dilation of mammary ducts. • Presentation: breast pain, lump under the nipple/areola with or without nipple discharge. • Treatment: excision of affected ducts. • Phyllodes tumor: • Definition: it is a fibroepithelial tumor which can be benign, intermediate or malignant (>10%). • It cannot be distinguished from fibroadenoma by ultrasound or mammography. A biopsy with pathological evaluation is needed (it has a higher mitotic activity). • Physical examination: large, freely movable mass with skin changes. • Treatment: • Small tumor: wide local excision with at least 1 cm margin. • Large tumor: simple mastectomy. No need for sentinel lymph node biopsy because malignant phyllodes spreads hematogenously commonly to the lung Benign Diseases
Intraductalpapilloma: • Definition: benign overgrowth of ductal epithelial cells. • Physical examination: unilateral bloody nipple discharge with subareolar mass. • Diagnosis: biopsy with pathologic evaluation. • Treatment: excision of the affected duct. • Gynecomastia: • Definition: It is a benign condition in which there is development of female-like breast tissue in a male. • Causes: • Physiological: neonatal, adolescent and senescent. • Pathological: • Increased estrogen: liver failure or obesity. • Decreased testosterone: aging or Klinfelter’s syndrome. • Drugs: spironolactone. • Or increased prolactin. • Diagnosis: at least 2 cm of breast tissue disc. • Treatment: surgical excision (subareolar mastectomy). Benign Diseases
Infiltrating ductal carcinoma: • It is the most common invasive breast cancer (80%). • Seen in post-menopausal females, unilateral breast involvement, comedo is the worst type, microcalcifications are detected by mammography. • Metastasize to: axilla, bone, lung, liver and brain. • Infiltrating lobular carcinoma: • It is the second most common invasive breast cancer (10%). • Seen in pre-menopausal females, high risk of bilateral breast involvement (20% of cases), lack of microcalcifications on mammography. • Metastasize to: axilla, meninges and serosal surfaces. • Paget’s disease of the nipple: • Invasive ductal carcinoma or LCIS reaching skin of the nipple. • Presentation of nipple: tender, itchy, has bloody discharge ± subareolar mass. • Diagnosis: biopsy shows Paget’s cells. • Treatment: modified radical mastectomy. • Inflammatory carcinoma: • It is the most lethal breast cancer. • Presents as: erythema, nipple retraction and peaud’orange. • Diagnosis: skin biopsy shows lymphocytic infiltration of the dermis. • Treatment: chemotherapy followed by surgery and/or radiation. Malignant Tumors
Epidemiology: • It is the second most common cause of cancer deaths among females (after lung cancer). • 1% of cases occur in males. • Risk factors: • Early menarche (> 12 years). • Late menopause (< 55 years). • Increased age (< 50 years). • Past history of breast cancer. • Family history of breast cancer (especially among first-degree relatives). • Genetic predisposition (BRCA1 or BRCA2 – positive). • Nulliparity. • Post-menopausal estrogen replacement therapy (unopposed by progesterone). • Radiation exposure. • Genetic predisposition: • BRCA1 and BRCA2 are both inherited as autosomal dominant (AD) with varying penetrance. • BRCA1: found on chromosome 17; associated with ovarian cancer. • BRCA2: found on chromosome 13; associated with male breast cancer. • Screening recommendations: Breast Cancer
Diagnosis: • Triple assessment of breast mass: • History and physical examination. • Imaging: mammography; ultrasound. • Histopathologic evaluation: FNA, stereotactic core biopsy. • Mammography: • Start yearly mammograms 10 years before the age at which a first-degree relative was diagnosed with breast cancer. • Mammography is highly sensitive and detect early disease (80% of detected cases have negative lymph nodes). • Suspicious finding on mammogram = microcalcifications. • Results: • 0: incomplete assessment. • 1: negative. • 2: benign. • 3: probably benign. • 4: suspicious for malignancy. • 5: highly suspicious for malignancy. • 6: proven by biopsy to be cancer; treatment pending. • Ultrasound. • FNA: • Advantages: cheap; 1-2% false positive results. • Disadvantages: 10% false-negative results; skilled pathologist needed . • Stereotactic core biopsy. Breast Cancer
Staging of breast cancer (TNM classification): Breast Cancer
Staging system for breast cancer: • Treatment options: • Stage-I and II breast cancer: • Lympectomy + sentinel lymph node biopsy + radiation. • Notice that chemotherapy is indicated for tumors < 1 cm or if there is lymph node involvement. • Stage-III: mastectomy with axillary lymph node dissection followed by chemo/radiation. • Stage-IV (advanced disease): palliative treatment. • Prognosis: • The most important prognostic factor in breast cancer is lymph node involvement! Breast Cancer
Types of operations: • Radical mastectomy (rarely done nowadays): removal of all breast tissue + axillary lymph nodes + pectoralis major and minor muscles. • Modified radical mastectomy: removal of all breast tissue and axillary lymph nodes (level-I). • Simple mastectomy: removal of all breast tissue. • Lumpectomy and axillary node dissection: removal of the lump with a margin of normal tissue + axillary lymph node dissection (levels I and II) + radiation therapy. This breast conservative operation is an option for stage I and II breast cancer. • Sentinel lymph node biopsy: • It is done when there are no palpable lymph nodes. • A blue dye is injected in the peri-areolar area. Then, axilla will be opened and inspected for blue and or “hot” nodes identified by a gamma probe. • Results: • Positive sentinel node(s):axillary dissection. • Negative sentinel node(s):axillary dissection not performed. • Hormonal therapy: • Selective estrogen receptor modulator (tamoxifen) is given for ER+/PR+ tumors < 1 cm in size (80% response). • Side effects: hot flashes, irregular menstruation, thromboembolism and increased risk for endometrial cancer. • Notice that Raloxifene does not increase the risk for endometrial cancer. • Chemotherapy: • Herceptin is used for HER-2-neu positive patients. • Breast reconstruction: • Autologous implants: rectus muscle or latissimusdorsi muscle. • Prosthetic implants: saline or silicone-based. Breast Cancer
Breast Cancer • Breast cancer in pregnant and lactating women: • Stage I and II: do modified radical mastectomy instead of lympectomy + axillary lymph node dissection + radiation (why?) → because you cannot expose a pregnant female to radiation. • If there are involved lymph nodes and chemotherapy is indicated → delay chemotherapy until 2nd trimester. • Termination of pregnancy is not part of the treatment plan for breast cancer and does not improve survival. • Breast cancer in males: • Predisposing factors: trauma, estrogen therapy, endogenous estrogen, previous exposure to radiation or Klinefelter’s syndrome. • Most common type: invasive ductal carcinoma. • Diagnosis tends to be late (at this time most males will have direct extension of the chest wall). • Treatment for early-stage disease: modified radical mastectomy with post-operative radiation.