PHONOLOGY

1. PHONOLOGY ENGLISH DEPARTMENT FACULTY OF LETTERS GUNADARMA UNIVERSITY

2. REFERENCES: Peter Roach, ENGLISH PHONETICS AND PHONOLOGY, Cambridge University Claire-A. Forel & Genoveva Puskás, PHONETICS AND PHONOLOGY, Reader for First Year English Linguistics, University of Geneva Philip Carr, PHONOLOGY, The Mac Millan Ltd, London, 1993. Victoria Fromkin et. Al, AN INTRODUCTION TO LANGUAGE, Ninth Edition, 2001

3. REFERENCES: 5. Gimson, A.C. (1980). An Introduction to the Pronunciation of English. London: Ed. Arnold, 3rd edition. 6. Hooper, J. B. (1976). An Introduction to Natural Generative Phonology. San Francisco: Academic Press. 7. Jones, D. (1950). An Outline of English Phonetics. Cambridge: Heffner & Sons.

4. 8. ________ (1975). English Pronouncing Dictionary. Revised by A.C. Gimson. London: Dent, 13th edition. 9. Ladefoged, P. (1982). A Course in Phonetics. New York: Harcourt Brace Jovanovich, 2nd edition. 10. Mc Carthy, P. (1967). English Pronunciation. Cambridge: Heffer & Sons, 4th edition.

6. DEFINITION OF PHONOLOGY: Phonology is the study of sounds and speech patterns in language. The root "phone" in phonology relates to sounds and originates from the Greek word phonema which means sound.

7. Received Pronunciation, often abbreviated to RP, is an accent of spoken English. Unlike other UK accents, it's identified not so much with a particular region as with a particular social group, although it has connections with the accent of Southern England. RP is associated with educated speakers and formal speech. It has connotations of prestige and authority, but also of privilege and arrogance.

8. Received Pronunciation (RP) is the standard accent of Standard English in England, with a relationship to regional accents similar to the relationship in other European languages between their standard varieties and their regional forms. RP is defined in the Concise Oxford English Dictionary as "the standard accent of English as spoken in the south of England", although it can be heard from native speakers throughout England and Wales. Peter Trudgill estimated in 1974 that 3% of people in Britain were RP speakers.

9. PHONETICS vs PHONOLOGY

10. DEFINITION OF PHONOLOGY: PHONOLOGY: The study of the inventory of sounds in a language; of how speech sounds may pattern together, or contrast. Questions of interest to a phonologist: • How do speech sounds pattern in this language? • How are they organized? How do they function? ...to a phonetician: • What is a possible human speech sound? • How do humans manipulate our articulatory physiology to produce speech? • How are different articulatory configurations heard as speech? One area of overlap with phonology: What properties of speech sounds does Language X use to achieve contrast?

11. PHONE vs PHONEME:

12. SPEECH ORGAN:

13. SPEECH ORGAN:

14. Parts of the Tongue: the back - opposite the soft palate the centre - opposite the meeting point of hard and soft palate the front - opposite the hard palate the blade - the tapering area facing the ridge of teeth the tip - the extreme end of the tongue

15. What is a PHONEME? A phoneme is the smallest contrastive unit in the sound system of a language. A Phoneme is the smallest unit of sound in a word that can differentiate the meaning.

16. PHONEME: A phoneme is a speech sound that helps us construct meaning. That is, if we replace it with another sound (where this is possible) we get a new meaning or no meaning at all. Example: Rubble,double or Hubble (astronomer for whom the space telescope is named

17. TABLE OF CONSONANTS:

18. TABLE OF CONSONANTS:

19. ENGLISH CONSONANTS: p - pip, potb - bat, bugt - tell, tabled - dog, digk - cat, keyg - get, gumf - fish, phonev - van, vatθ - thick, thump, faithð - these, there, smooth

20. ENGLISH CONSONANTS: s - sat, sitz - zebra, zapʃ - shipʒ - treasure, leisureh - hop, huttʃ - chipdʒ - lodge, judgem - man, mummyn - man, panŋ - sing, wrongl - let, lipsr - rub, ranw - wait, wormj - yet, yacht

21. ENGLISH VOWELS:(SHORT) ɪ - bit, sillyɛ - bet, headæ - cat, dadɒ - dog, rottenʌ - cut, nutʊ - put, sootə - about, clever

22. ENGLISH VOWELS:(LONG) i: - cream, seenɜː - burn, firm (also shown as ə: )ɑː - hard, farɔː - corn, faunu: - food, glue

23. DIPHTHONGS: aɪ - spice, pieɛɪ - wait, fateɔɪ - toy, joyəʊ - oats, noteaʊ - clown, vowɔə - bored, pouredɪə - deer, pierɛə - hair, bearʊə - cure, fuel

24. FRONT VOWELS: /i:/ - cream, seen (long high front spread vowel) /ɪ/ - bit, silly (short high front spread vowel) /ɛ/ - bet, head (short mid front spread vowel); this may also be shown by the symbol /e/ /æ/ - cat, dad (short low front spread vowel); this may also be shown by /a/

25. CENTRAL VOWELS: /ɜ:/- burn, firm (long mid central spread vowel); this may also be shown by the symbol /ə:/. /ə/ - about, clever (short mid central spread vowel); this is sometimes known as schwa, or the neutral vowel sound - it never occurs in a stressed position. /ʌ/ - cut, nut (short low front spread vowel); this vowel is quite uncommon among speakers in the Midlands and further north in Britain.

26. BACK VOWELS: /u:/ - boob, glue (long high back rounded vowel) /ʊ/ - put, soot (short high back rounded vowel); also shown by /u/ /ɔ:/ - corn, faun (long mid back rounded vowel) also shown by /o:/ /ɒ/- dog, rotten (short low back rounded vowel) also shown by /o/ /ɑ:/ - hard, far (long low back spread vowel)

27. Sounds: Consonants, Vowels, Diphthongs “Consonant” and “vowel” each have two related but distinct meanings in English. In writing of phonology, you need to make the distinction clear. When you were younger you may have learned that b,c,d,f and so on are consonants while a,e,i,o,u are vowels - and you may have wondered about y.

28. Sounds: Consonants, Vowels, Diphthongs diphthongs. We also have some triphthongs - where three vowel sounds come in succession in words such as “fire”, “power”

29. VOWEL DIAGRAM:

30. The Most Common Processes: Assimilation Dissimilation Deletion Epenthesis Metathesis Vowel reduction

31. Assimilation: Two sounds becoming more alike Regressive Assimilation Assimilation in which a sound influences the preceding segment. E.g. indefinite, impossible, incomplete Progressive Assimilation Assimilation in which a sound influences the following segment. E.g. books, bags

32. [-z] or [-s] Bananas Grapes Lemons Cookies Cakes Tarts Potatoes Carrots • [-z] • [-s] • [-z] • [-z] • [-s] • [-s] • [-z] • [-s]

33. [-d], [-t], or [-id] Studied Kicked Eliminated Erased Looked Typed Measured Surrounded • [-d] • [-t] • [-id] • [-d] • [-t] • [-t] • [-d] • [-id]

34. Dissimilation:Two Sounds Becoming Less Alike “Fifths”: [f I f __ s]  [f I f t s] Three fricatives  fricative+stop+fricative

35. Deletion A process that removes a segment from certain phonetic context. In English, a schwa [] is often deleted when the next vowel in the word is stressed. “supports”: [spts]  [spts]

36. Epenthesis A process that inserts a segment into a particular environment. For example: Athalete for Athlete"'That's the thing,' said McCloud plaintively. 'A athalete has to keep up appearances. Sure, people think a athalete makes plenty, and he do on paper. But people never stop to think he's allus gotta keep up a expensive front.'"(Kurt Vonnegut, Player Piano, 1952)

37. Vowels and Consonants"Epenthetic sounds are not always vowels. For example, consider the two indefinite articlesa and an. We know that a is used before consonant sounds and an is used before vowel sounds . . .. We may view this [n] as an epenthetic sound that breaks up a sequence of two vowels: a apple - an apple."(Anita K. Berry, Linguistic Perspectives on Language and Education. Greenwood, 2002)

38. Metathesis A process that reorders a sequence of segments For example: Brid (Old English)  Bird (Modern English)

39. Vowel Reduction The articulation of a vowel moves to a more central position when the vowel is unstressed. For example: considerate vs. consideration

40. SYLLABLES: When you think of individual sounds, you may think of them in terms of syllables. These are units of phonological organization and smaller than words. Alternatively, think of them as units of rhythm. Although they may contain several sounds, they combine them in ways that create the effect of unity. Thus splash is a single syllable but it combines three consonants, a vowel, and a final consonant /spl+æ+ʃ/.

41. Suprasegmental Sounds: The term suprasegmental was invented to refer to aspects of sound such as intonation that did not seem to be properties of individual segments (i.e. the vowels and consonants of which speech is composed). The term has tended to be used predominantly by American writers, and much British work has preferred to use the term prosodic instead. There has never been full agreement about how many suprasegmental features are to be found in speech, but pitch, loudness, tempo, rhythm, intonation and stress are the most commonly mentioned ones.

42. TECHNICAL TERMS: What is phonology? Contrastive vs. non-contrastive sounds Phonemes vs. allophones Complementary distribution

43. PHONOLOGY: The study of the inventory of sounds in a language; of how speech sounds may pattern together, or contrast. Questions of interest to a phonologist: • How do speech sounds pattern in this language? • How are they organized? How do they function? ...to a phonetician: • What is a possible human speech sound? • How do humans manipulate our articulatory physiology to produce speech? • How are different articulatory configurations heard as speech? One area of overlap with phonology: What properties of speech sounds does Language X use to achieve contrast?

44. CONTRASTIVE - FUNCTION Contrastiveness vs. noncontrastiveness Do the sounds function to distinguish meaning? Two sounds are contrastive if inter-changing the two can change meaning of the word English /p/~/b/: [k__p] ‘cap’ vs. [k__b] ‘cab’

45. MINIMAL PAIR Two (or more) words that differ only by a single sound in the same position and that have different meanings m/n: [s^ m] ‘sum’ vs. [s^ n] ‘sun’ k/g: [kIl] ‘kill’ vs. [gIl] ‘gill’ s/S: [mesi] ‘messy’ vs. [me__i] ‘meshy’ i/I/e: [fil] ‘feel’ vs. [fIl] ‘fill’ vs. [fel] ‘fell’

46. MINIMAL PAIR: While whole sounds can contrast, so can parts of sounds (i.e., features): Voicing: [tIl] ‘till’ vs. [dIl] ‘dill’ Place: [s ^m] ‘sum’ vs. [s^ __] ‘sung’ Manner: [m__s] ‘mess’ vs. [m___t] ‘met’ Sounds in a minimal pair… …contrast …are unpredictable (i.e., must be learned) …belong to different phonemes

47. Phoneme vs Allophone Phoneme: A minimal unit of sound that serves to distinguish meaning between words May be composed of a set of sounds (‘allophones’) that are considered by native speakers to be the ‘same’ sound Allophone: the different phonetic realizations of a phoneme

48. ALLOPHONE: top stop little kitten kite [t__p] [st_p] [litl] [kitn] [kait] / t / [th][t][t] [t] phoneme  allophones 

49. Contrastive distribution Contrastive distribution: When sounds can occur in the exact same phonetic environment (thereby forming a minimal pair), e.g., Initial: [su_] ‘sue’, [zu_] ‘zoo’ Medial: [b ^_i__] ‘bussing’, [b ^zI___] ‘buzzing’ Final: [kloUs] ‘close’, [kloU___] ‘clothe’

50. Distribution Complementary distribution:When two (or more) phonetically similar sounds never occur in exactly the same environment, but in complementary or mutually-exclusive environments p/ph: [sp__t] ‘spat’ [ph__t] ‘pat’ [spul] ‘spool’ [p_ul] ‘pool’ [spi_k] ‘speak’ [p_i_k] ‘peak’