Ch. 9 South in the Ascent (900-1300 C.E)

1. Ch. 9 South in the Ascent (900-1300 C.E) 1. Chalukya, Chola empires 2. Political administration 3. Religion 4. Temples and architecture

2. Political history • South was divided into numerous smaller kingdoms – Cholas emerged as the strong political power • This period can be seen as the classical period in the history of south India- similar patterns as seen in the Gupta history can be seen now • Religion- systematized, trade with Southeast Asia and Arabs, art and architecture- Chola bronzes popular throughout India.

3. The Cholas • Paranthaka I (907C.E) first important ruler of Chola empire • Defeated Pandyas and expanded upto Madurai. This brought him into contact with Srilanka and years of conflict followed. • Rajaraja I (985-1014) - Tried to break alliance between, Kerala, Srilanka and Pandyas- in order to dominate the western sea trade. • Attacked Maldives • Attacked Srilanka destroying the capital Anuradhapura

4. Rajendra (1014-1042)ruled with his father, the last two years and then succeeded him- • Continued the policy of conquest • North campaign- upto Ganga. • Oveseas campaign: Conquered, Srilanka • Srivijaya- Malay peninsula and Sumatra • Internal conflicts within the south- Vengi Chalukya- lightning raids • Kulottunga I (1070-1180) • Sent embassy of 72 merchants to China in 1077. • Disintegrated into smaller empires-again after 12 c. C.E.

5. Political administration • King and his confident raja-guru (high priest) at the head of affairs • Administration carried out by officials • Divided into provinces- Mandalam (8 provinces in Chola empire) • Each Mandalam is divided into districts or Valanadus. These were again divided into groups of villages known as, Kurram, nadu or kottam for administration.

6. Chola local administration • Remarkable feature of Chola administration is the independent local administration. • Village autonomy is seen for the first time in Ancient world • Chola officials participated in the village administration as advisors and observers • Helped village development without much interference.

7. Village assembly • A village assembly was formed from among the villagers for the governance • Complex village administration • Each village divided into wards- • The representatives can be members of wards- and professional groups- • General assembly included most of the local residents:

8. The general assembly • There are three kinds of village general assemblies: Ur, Sabha and Nagaram. • In some villages Ur and Sabha are found together. • In some villages there may be more than one Ur. • Ur: All male members of the village are members- elders formed council for day to day governance • Sabha is restricted to the Brahmans of the village and is governed in a similar way. • Nagaram is found in trade centers-

9. Committees • Committees will be appointed from among the members of the assemblies- garden committee, tank committee, temple committee etc. • Any accountant will write the accounts • Generally, the assembly met in the temple compound. • State taxes were also collected by the village assembly- assessed jointly on the village- not on individuals

10. Trade • Overseas trade: export- ivory, spices, sandal wood, metal artifacts • Imports: exclusively horses • Guilds took care of trade- finance, registration, payment of taxes etc.

11. Temples • Huge architectural monuments- all across the kingdom- Rajaraja temple- Tanjore • Temples acted as the institutions and meeting places • Educational centers • Temples owned tax exempt lands • Owned women donated in their childhood • Called Devadasi (servant of god) but exploited by other sections of society

12. Caste system • Became stratified, but not as strict as in the North India- still fluid. • Caste educational guilds • Educational centers: Ennayiram, Tribhuvani, Tiruvaduturai, Tiroyyur.- Sanskrit as medium of education • But local language flourished in the Tamil and Saiva hymns written during this time.

13. Religion • Sanskrit texts translated into local language • Kamba- Ramayana- Tamil • Pampa- Ramayana- Kannada • Mahabharata- Telugu- Nannaya New religious movement with local features: Bhakti- Vaisnavism- personal god- alvars- composed hymns Three Saiva sects: Kapalika, Kalamukha and Pashupata Lingayata or Virasaiva school developed later from the Saiva schools- Bhakti at the center of the religion Opposed caste system

14. Vaishnavism • Shankara- Visistadvaita- qualified monism- only one principle- knowledge is the only way to reach it. • Ramanuja-Dvaita- dualism- nature is dual-so is the highest principle- knowledge is not the only way to reach it. • Bhakti is another legetimate way to reach it. • He pleaded that the temples should be opened to Shudras- without much success- but new rituals that allowed other religions to participate entered the temples. • Ramanuja- selective salvation- forgiveness- • Two school north- that one should try for forgiveness and salvation- south- god select people arbitrarily for slavation.

15. Madhva further modifications in Vaisnava theology • Only pure souls are selected for salvation A development in theology- Brahmanical and popular elements mixed in practice.

16. Architecture • Avoided hills and caves- to construct free standing structures • Rajaraja temple- Tanjore • Madura meenakshi temple • A number of temples in Tamilanadu • Compound with parivara devata shrines • Central temple with high Shikhara • Doorways on all four sides with gopuras • Dwarasamudram- sun temple- chariot model- model for later sun temple in Konark.