1 / 65

Chapter 14

Chapter 14. IRAN. Historical Turning Points. 559 BCE --- Empire of Cyrus the Great 332 BCE --- Conquest by Alexander the Great and the Greeks 250 BCE --- Parthian Dynasty 226 CE --- Sassanian Dynasty 638 --- Arab/Islamic Conquest 1219 --- Mongol Invasion

libitha
Download Presentation

Chapter 14

An Image/Link below is provided (as is) to download presentation Download Policy: Content on the Website is provided to you AS IS for your information and personal use and may not be sold / licensed / shared on other websites without getting consent from its author. Content is provided to you AS IS for your information and personal use only. Download presentation by click this link. While downloading, if for some reason you are not able to download a presentation, the publisher may have deleted the file from their server. During download, if you can't get a presentation, the file might be deleted by the publisher.

E N D

Presentation Transcript


  1. Chapter 14 IRAN

  2. Historical Turning Points • 559 BCE --- Empire of Cyrus the Great • 332 BCE --- Conquest by Alexander the Great and the Greeks • 250 BCE --- Parthian Dynasty • 226 CE --- Sassanian Dynasty • 638 --- Arab/Islamic Conquest • 1219 --- Mongol Invasion • 1501 --- Safavid Dynasty establishes Shiism as state religion • 1796 --- Qajar Dynasty

  3. Political Turning Points I • 1905 --- Constitutional Revolution • 1908 --- Oil discovered • 1925 --- Reza Khan overthrows Qajar Dynasty • 1941 --- Muhammad Reza Shah Pahlavi becomes shah • 1950’s --- Mossadeq nationalizes oil industry; US coup restores shah • 1960s-70s – White Revolution/Khomeini in exile • 1979 --- Islamic Revolution

  4. Political Turning Points II • 1980-1988 --- War with Iraq • 1989 --- Khomeini dies; Khamenei succeeds him as Supreme Leader after a power struggle in the Assembly of Religious experts • 1997 --- Reformist Khatami elected president • 2000 --- Reformist candidates win control of the Majlis • 2004 --- Conservatives regain control of Majlis • 2005 --- Conservative Ahmadinejad elected president

  5. Achemenian Empire (Persia) • Founded by Cyrus (6th century BCE) • Largest empire in the world at that time • Survived for 200 years • Centralized military leadership • Major rival was the Greeks • Both Greeks & Persians ultimately conquered by Alexander the Great • Alexander left Persian political structure relatively intact

  6. King Darius - Zoroastrianism • Iranian sovereigns were hereditary military leaders • Darius built capital of Persepolis • Built intricate system of roads • King’s authority supported by strong military as well as state-sponsored religion: Zoroastrianism • Zoroastrianism did not survive as major religion but continued to be practiced regularly until 7th century CE.

  7. Shi’ism • Between 7th & 16th centuries CE religion held Iran together • Numerous invasions by Arabs introduced Islam to the region • Even when Iranian caliphate was defeated by Mongols in 13th century the Mongolians converted to Islam • Shi’ism established as state religion in 16th century

  8. Shi’ism II • Shi’ites – after Muhammad’s death they felt that leadership of the Muslims should be hereditary and pass to Muhammad’s son-in-law, Ali. • Sunnis favored choosing a caliph from the accepted Sunni leadership • When Ali was killed the Shi’ite opinion became a minority one, but they kept their separate identity • True heirs of Islam were the descendants of Ali • The heirs (Imams) continued until the 9th century, when the 12th descendant disappeared as a a child, to become known as the “Hidden Imam”

  9. Twelver Shi’ism • “Hidden Imams” • 12th Imam disappeared as a child in 874 CE, did not die however, will come forward and show himself to establish just rule at the end of times, when injustice and corruption reign supreme (Messiah-like figure) • Ulema were willing to give the right to rule to the shahs as long as they ruled justly • By end of the 17th century for a shah’s rule to be legitimate he had to have the ulema’s endorsement • Ulema ultimately establish themselves as an institution independent of the state, tithes were often paid to the ulema directly giving them both political and economic influence • The center of Twelver Shi’ism is the city of Najaf, in Iraq

  10. Safavid Empire (1501-1722) • Established Shi’ite identity in Iran • By mid-17th century converted 90% of population to Shi’ism • Tolerated “People of the Book” – monotheistic religions based on holy books similar to the Qur’an • Serious economic problems do to breakup of the Silk Road • Had no money for large bureaucracy or standing army • Relied on local rulers to maintain order and collect taxes • Claimed absolute power but lacked a central state • Monarchy became separated from society and lost power by 1722

  11. Qajars (1794-1925) • Turkish people that reconquered Iran at end of 18th century • Moved capital to Tehran • Could not claim to be descendents of Twelve Imams • Shi’ite clerical leaders could claim more power as interpreters of Islam, separation between government and religion widened • Suffered land loss to European empires of 19th century, sold oil rights to British in the southwest • Shah led country into serious debt • Iranians upset over shah’s lavish lifestyle look for change that would be initiated by bankers and businessmen

  12. Constitutional Revolution • Constitution of 1906 • Elections • Separation of Powers • Laws made by an elected legislature • Popular sovereignty • Bill of Rights guaranteeing citizen equality, protection of the accused, and freedom of expression • Majlis & Guardian Council created • Shi’ism becomes official state religion

  13. Pahlavis (1925-1979) • By early 1920’s Iran in political and economic disarray • Majlis divided by quarreling factions • Iran divided into three parts after WWI with Russia and Great Britain each occupying a third of the country • Cossack Brigade of the Qajar’s led by Colonel Reza Khan carries out coup d’etat in 1921 and claims himself shah-in-shah in 1925 establishing the Pahlavi dynasty

  14. Pahlavi’s continued • Authoritarian rule reestablished in Iran • Majlis loses its power • Reza Shah passes power to his son, Muhammad Reza Shah in 1941 • Democratic experiment of 1906 constitution not forgotten, shah challenged domestically • Tudeh Party (communists) • National Front (nationalists) Muhammad Mossadeq • Mossadeq overthrown by CIA in 1953, Shah reinstated

  15. Pahlavi - OIL & the Rent-seeking state • Iran transformed into rent-seeking state under Pahlavi’s because of increasing income from oil • Rentier Economy: heavily supported by state expenditure, while the state receives “rents” from other countries • Iran received increasing revenue from exporting oil and leasing oil fields to foreign countries • Although shah promoted import substitution policies by 1979 oil & associated industries provided 97% of foreign exchange and majority of Iran’s GNP • Oil revenue became so great government did not have to rely on internal taxes to generate income, paid expenses from oil profits • The people become unnecessary to the government in a rentier state

  16. Pahlavi Influence • Centralized State • State banks • National radio/TV networks • National Iranian Oil Company (NOIC) • Central Bureaucracy controlled local governments • Majlis became “rubber-stamp” legislature • Secularization in judicial branch (European-style judicial system) • “White Revolution” • Armed forces 5th largest in world by 1979 • Patronage – shah’s boost personal wealth by seizing property and establishing tax-exempt Pahlavi Foundation that controlled large companies and fed their wealth • Muhammad Reza Shah formed Resurgence Party, claimed Iran was one-party state, named himself head

  17. Pahlavi – “White Revolution” • “White” to counter influence of “red” communists • Land reform – government bought land from large absentee owners and sold it to farmers at affordable prices • Encourage agricultural entrepreneurship with irrigation canals, dams, & tractors • Women’s rights (secularization) • Suffrage • Restricting Polygamy • Women allowed to work outside the home

  18. Islamic Revolution & the Republic (1979-present) • Dominant ideology of Iranian revolution: Religion • Leader a cleric (Ayatollah Ruhollah Khomeini) • Theocracy established • Fundamental Islam • Causes • Shah perceived as being totalitarian • Balance between secular and religious state ruptured • Ties with US and the Western world

  19. Khomeini, Fundamentalism, & Revolution • Islamic Fundamentalism • Literal interpretation of Islamic texts • Social conservatism • Political traditionalism • Resentment towards elites, US, and the Western world • US was the “Great Satan” • Velayat-e faqih (jurist’s guardianship) • Senior clergy given authority over entire Shi’ia community

  20. Revolution • Oil prices decrease about 10% in late 70s • Consumer prices in Iran increase about 20% at the same time • “Revolution of Rising Expectations” – revolutions occur when people are doing better than they once were and a set back occurs • US puts pressure on shat to loosen restrictions on civil society, in particular restraints on political opposition • Once restrictions were eased many groups join the revolt (students, teachers, labor groups, oil workers, merchants, and professional associations)

  21. Revolution II • 1978 • Unarmed demonstrators killed in central square Tehran • Oil workers go on strike • Anti-regime rallies attract 2 million participants • Rallies organized and led by clerics • Shah flees the country in February 1979 • Khomeini returns to Iran from exile in Paris

  22. Islamic Republic • April 1979 referendum held, Iranians officially vote out the shah, Islamic Republic established • Assembly of Religious Experts – 73 clerics elected by the people draft a new constitution in 1979 • US-Iranian hostage crisis on-going during vote to ratify constitution • 99% of electorate vote to endorse constitution although only 75% of eligible voters cast votes

  23. Khomeini & the Islamic Republic • Clerics consolidate power • Popular support for regime high • World oil prices rise again, allowing for social programs, improvements in medicine & housing • Iraq invades Iran, people rally around the government • Charisma of Khomeini inspired faith in the government • Khomeini dies in 1989, constitution amended • Ali Khamenei succeeds Khomeini, does not have the same political charisma as the Ayatollah • Iran/Iraq war ends in 1988, country war-torn • Oil prices drop in 1990’s • Population begins to question authoritarian rule of the clerics

  24. Constitution of 1979 • Document & 40 Amendments (Some added in 1989) • Mixture of theocracy and democracy • Preamble reflects importance of religion • Velayat-e faqih (Jurist’s guardianship) • Gave broad authority to Khomeini and the clerics

  25. Political Cleavages • Religion • Ethnicity • Social Class • Reformers vs. Conservatives

  26. Religion • 89% of Iranians are Shi’a Muslims • 10% are Sunni Muslim • The constitution does not mention Sunni’s and their legal status is therefore unknown • 1% are combination of Jews, Christians, Zoroastrians, and Baha’i • Constitution recognizes rights of religious minorities, many religious minorities have left country since Islamic Revolution • Baha’i considered unholy offshoot of Islam and they have been persecuted by Shi’ite governments. • Baha’i leaders have been executed, imprisoned, tortured, their schools closed and property confiscated

  27. Ethnicity • 51% Persian (speak Farsi) • 24% Azeri • Live mostly in the northwest close to Azerbaijan, this causes tension with Iranian government worried that Azeri may want to unite part of Iranian territory with Azerbaijan • Azeri do not speak Farsi, but they are mostly Shi’ite, Ali Khameini was Azeri • 8% Gilaki & Mazandarani • 7% Kurds • Predominantly Sunni • 3% Arabic • Predominantly Sunni

  28. Social Class • Peasantry and middle class support Islamic regime • Benefited from government social programs. • Provided electricity & paved roads • Middle & Upper-middle class largely secularized • Critical of clerics • Have not fared well economically under the Republic this reinforces their cultural and political views

  29. Political Culture • Authoritarianism (not totalitarianism) – leaders claim to be all powerful, but do not interfere with every aspect of the citizens lives • Union of political & religious authority • Shi’ism & Sharia – key components of everyday life • Escape from European Colonialism • Geographic Limitations – limited arable land forced expansion through military conquest, population of Iran unevenly distributed in cities and northwestern part of country • Influence of Ancient Persia

  30. Legitimacy of Modern State • Revolution of 1979 • Legitimacy attached to principles of Shi’ism • Constitution of 1979 • Amended in 1989

  31. Women & the Political System • Treatment of women in Iran is probably more contentious for Westerners than the majority of Iranian women • When shari’a law is interpreted narrowly women are considered wards of their male relatives • “Equality-with-difference” policy – instituted by the Islamic Republic slants law favorably towards men on issues such as divorce and custody • Women must wear scarves and long coats in public • Women can not leave country without consent of male relatives • Occasionally women stoned for committing adultery • Women allowed to get education in Iran and entrance into some occupations • Expectations for better jobs and increased political rights among educated women • Half of college students in Iran are women • Women make up 27% of the labor force

  32. Linkage Institutions • Political Parties • Elections • Interest Groups • Mass Media

  33. Political Parties • Constitution legalized political parties, but they were not allowed until Muhammad Khatami’s election (1997) • The Iranian Militant Clerics Society – left wing reform party led by Muhammad Khatami. • Khatami president from 1997-2005 • Several prominent politicians belong to this party including former Majlis speaker, and a vice-president • Candidate in 2005, Mehdi Karroubi, came in third • The Islamic Iran Participation Front – reformist party led by Khatami’s brother, Muhammad Reza Khatami • Founded in 1998, motto “Iran for all Iranians” • Did well in 2000 Majlis elections • Guardian Council barred many members from running in 2004 so membership declined

  34. Political Parties II • Executives of Construction Party – founded by several former cabinet members of President Akbar Hashemi Rafsanjani • Important supporter of Rafsanjani and his political platform • Rafsanjani lost election runoff to Ahmadinejad by a large margin • The Islamic Society of Engineers – member of the conservative alliance, party of current president Mahmoud Ahmadinejad, who secured office in presidential election of 2005 • The “society” however did not support Ahmadinejad in the election, their candidate was Ali Larijani, who lost in first round

  35. Reformist Parties • Khordad Front (Alliance between Iranian Militant Clerics Society & Islamic Iran Participation Front) – the alliance helped win reelection for Khatami in 2000. • The Second Khordad Front did not survive in 2004 elections as Guardian Council banned many reformist candidates from Majlis elections • Liberation Movement – Moderate party, party founded by Mehdi Bazargan (Khomeini’s PM), in 1961 it was banned in 2002 as subversive organization • National Front – headed by Mossadeq in 1950, it was banned in late 1980s • Exile parties – Mojahedin (guerrilla group fought the shah); Fedayin (Marxist guerrillas modeled after Che Guevara); Tudeh (communist party)

  36. Elections • Citizens over 15 may vote • National elections held for the following: • Assembly of Religious Experts • Representative to the Majlis • President • Elections to Majlis and President are by plurality, winner-take all • Elections are done over two rounds • First round narrows field down to 2 candidates

  37. Majlis Election of 2004 Feb. 20, 2004 Council of Guardians banned thousands of candidates from mostly reformist parties Out of a possible 285 seats (5 reserved for religious minorities) reformist could only introduce 191 candidates 51% - Official voter turnout Conservative candidates won 70% of seats Presidential Election of 2005 Khatami steps down after serving two terms Guardian Council disqualifies about 1000 candidates Only 7 candidates run Akbar Hasemi Rafsanjani and Mahmoud Ahmadinejad Rafsanjani received 21% of the vote compared to Ahmadinejad’s 19% in the first round In second round runoff Ahmadinejad won with 62% of the vote Rafsanjani suffered from being unable to organize reformist vote behind him Elections II

  38. Interest Groups • It is difficult to distinguish between parties and interest groups in Iran • Most exile parties have members in Iran that work for their benefit • Interest Groups • Islamic Association of Women • Green Coalition • Workers’ House • Interest group for factory workers, have a political party as well, Islamic Labor Party • Hold a May Day rally every year, turned into protest in 1999 against conservative policies to water-down labor laws

  39. Mass Media • During and shortly after revolution 27 newspapers in total were shut down • In 1981 Majlis passed law making it illegal to use “pen and speech” against the government • Some restrictions have been lifted • Rafsanjani government allowed for debate in press on some controversial issues • Khatami administration issued permits to new publications in attempt to establish independent press • Many newspapers and magazines privately owned • Freedom of Press still a major issue between conservatives and reformists • In 2002, some 60 pro-reform newspapers were shut down • Iran’s elite are well-educated, and private media cater to their needs and interests • Radio & TV are government-run, Islamic Republic of Iran Broadcasting (IRIB)

  40. Government Institutions • Jurist’s Guardianship • Supreme Leader • Guardian Council • Assembly of Religious Experts • Expediency Council • President & Cabinet • Majlis • Judicial Branch • Military

  41. Velayat-e faqih (Jurist’s guardianship) • The principle instituted by Khomeini of overarching authority for different government institutions: • Supreme Leader • Guardian Council • Assembly of Religious Experts • Expediency Council • This authority is all-encompassing and is over whole community based on their ability to understand shari’a and their commitment to champion the rights of the people

  42. Supreme Leader • Position created for Khomeini, currently held by Ali Khomeini • Powers of Supreme Leader: • Elimination of presidential candidates • Dismissal of the president • Command armed forces • Declares war & peace • Appointment and removal of major administrators and judges • Nominates six members of Guardian Council • Appoints many non-governmental directors, such as radio/TV and semi-public foundations • Responsibilities of Supreme Leader: • faqih – he is the leading Islamic jurist to interpret shari’a and religious documents • Links three branches of government together • “Determining the interests of Islam”

  43. Guardian Council • 12 members • All Male • 6 members appointed by Supreme Leader • 6 members nominated by chief judge, approved by Majlis • Responsibilities • They represent theocratic principles within the government • Review bills passed by Majlis to ensure they conform with shari’a • Guardian Council and Supreme Leader together exercise principle of jurist’s guardianship (Make sure all democratic bodies adhere to Islamic laws & beliefs) • Power to decide who can compete in elections • In 2004 & 2005 disqualified thousands of candidates for both Majlis and presidential elections

  44. Assembly of Religious Experts • Expanded in 1989 to an 86 man house • Directly elected by the people • 4 year terms • Members originally required to have seminary degree equivalent to a master’s, 1998 revision now allows non-clerics to stand for Assembly – candidates still subject to approval by Council of Guardians • Responsibilities • Broad constitutional interpretation • Elected Khomeini’s successor (Khamenei) • Reserve right to remove supreme leader

  45. Expediency Council • Created by Khomeini • Main purpose to “referee” disputes between the Guardian Council and the Majlis • Began as a 13-member group including: president, chief judge, speaker of Majlis, and six jurists from the Guardian Council • 1989, Expediency Council passes some bills, and is institutionalized by constitutional amendments • Currently consists of 32 members • It may originate its own legislation • Not all members are clerics • Still appointed by Supreme Leader • Collectively most powerful men in Iran

  46. President & the Cabinet • Iran is not a presidential system, therefore the executive branch does not have the same authority as presidents in presidential systems such as U.S., Mexico, and Nigeria • President does represent highest official representing democratic principles in Iran • Chief executive, highest state official after Supreme Leader • Directly elected every 4 years • Constitution still requires the president to be a Shi’ite and uphold Islamic principles • All six presidents of the Islamic Republic have been clerics except for Abol-Hasan Bani-Sadr who was ousted in 1981 for criticizing the regime as a dictatorship

  47. President’s Power • Devising the Budget • Supervising economic matters • Proposing legislation to the Majlis • Executing policies • Signing of treaties, laws, and agreements • Chairing the National Security Council • Selecting vice presidents and cabinet ministers • Appointing provincial governors, town mayors, and ambassadors

  48. Cabinet’s Power • Conducts the day-to-day work of governance • Most new laws and the budget are initiated and devised by cabinet members • Then submitted to parliament for approval, modification, or rejection

  49. Bureaucracy • President heads up the bureaucracy that has doubled since 1979 • Provides jobs for high school and college graduates • Clergy dominates the bureaucracy, head ministers all clerics (Intelligence, Interior, Justice, Culture & Islamic Guidance) • Agencies • Culture and Islamic Guidance – censures media • Intelligence – chief security organization • Heavy Industry – manages factories • Reconstruction – expands social services and sees that Islam extends to countryside

  50. Semipublic Institutions • Theoretically autonomous • In reality they are directed by clerics appointed by the Supreme Leader • Usually called “foundations” (bonyads) • Foundation of the Oppressed • Martyrs Foundation • Foundation for the Publication of Imam Khomeini’s Works • Foundations are tax exempt • Reputed to have a great deal of wealth • Most property they supervise was confiscated from pre-1979 elite

More Related