INTRODUCTION

1. INTRODUCTION

2. What is a system? • A regularly interacting or interdependent group of items forming a unified whole • A group of interacting bodies under the influence of related forces e.g. gravitational system • A group of related natural objects or forces e.g. a river system • A group of devices or an organization forming a network, especially for distributing something or serving a common purpose e.g. a telephone, system, a heating system, a highway system, a data processing system • An organized set of doctrines, ideas or principles, usually intended to explain the arrangements or working of a systematic whole • An organized or established procedure e.g. the typing system

3. Different kinds of systems • Natural systems - These exist in nature and are not man made e.g. • Stellar system: galaxies, solar systems, and so on • Geological Systems: • Rivers, mountain ranges, and so on • Molecular systems: complex organizations of atoms • Man-made Systems • Social systems; • transportation systems; • an organized, disciplined collection of ideas; • Communication systems; • manufacturing systems; • financial systems etc.

4. Examples of Systems

5. Classification of Systems Open system - Is a system which communicates (interacts) with its environment. E.g. Business System, Economic System, Information System, Transport System, Social systems etc.

6. Open systems cont… Open systems can get disorganized i.e. when the system can not reorganize itself according to its internal subsystem forces, the system therefore should be regulated. The process whereby the system is regulated is known as negative feedback. Organisations as open systems attempt to monitor and anticipate environmental

7. Open Systems cont.. Organisations as open systems attempt to monitor and anticipate environmental disturbances. Some disturbances are so great or unexpected that they threaten the existence of the organisation. All business organizations are open systems, for them to exist they must have the capability to adapt in the face of changing markets conditions; globalization, liberalisation, competition, technology, the law, conflict, etc.

8. Characteristics of an open system 1. It must be designed to achieve a predetermined objective. 2. A system contains a set of interacting elements or components. 3. The properties and the behaviour of the system components are inextricably intermingled. 4. An open system comprises of input, output, storage and processing as major elements. • 5. A system operates within specified boundaries and interacts with other systems.

9. Characteristics of an open system cont.. 6. A system has some controls and these controls help it not to operate beyond its boundaries. 7. A system must give priority to the objectives of the whole system as compared to the objectives of a subsystem. 8. Successful functioning of each system component depends on the functioning of some other components.

10. Characteristics of an open system cont.. 9. Systems are hierarchical in that, they include other systems i.e. subsystems. Note: Sub-systems can operate as independent systems in their own right.

11. Closed system This is a system that doesn't interact with the environment at all, which means the system doesn't communicate from (no inputs) or to (no outputs) its environment. Whatever happens in the system doesn't affect the environment and vice versa. It corrects and controls itself. Is isolated from its environment. Are self-contained, environmental factors does not influence their behaviour.

12. Closed Systems cont.. They are more relevant to scientific, mechanical and physical systems else all social and economic systems have some interaction with their environment

13. Comparison btw open and closed systems

14. Systems Thinking • Systems thinking is the application of formal systems theory and concepts to systems problem solving.

15. System Concepts A process is work performed on, or in response to, incoming data flows or conditions.

16. Decomposition Decomposition is the act of breaking a system into its component subsystems, processes, and sub-processes. Each level of abstraction reveals more or less detail.

17. Decomposition Diagrams A decomposition diagram or hierarchy chart shows the top-down, functional decomposition of a system.

18. General System Principles • The more specialized a system is, the less able it is to adapt to different circumstances. The more “general-purpose” a system is, the less “optimized” it is for any particular situation; but the more the system is optimized for a particular situation, the less adaptable it will be to new circumstances. • The larger a system is, the more its resources that must be devoted to every day maintenance. A large system for example will require an enormous effort in such “unproductive” areas as error checking, editing, backup, maintenance, security and documentation.

19. General System Principles • Systems are always part of larger systems and they can always be partitioned into smaller systems. This is important for two reasons: first it suggests an obvious way to organize a computer system that we are trying to develop – by partitioning it into smaller systems. More important, though, it suggests that the definition of the system that we are trying to develop is arbitrary – we could have chosen a slightly smaller system or a slightly larger system. Choosing the scope of a system and defining it carefully so that everyone knows what is inside then system and what is outside is an important activity that shall be considered later on.

20. General System Principles • Systems Grow – Typical information system will grow to include more software than initially planned, more data, more functions, and more users. It has been found by researchers of existing systems that the amount of code in an existing automated system increases by approximately 10% per year and the size of the database increases by about 5% each year. One cannot assume that a system one builds will remain static; the cost of expanding it over time should be included in the “cost benefit” calculations for a new system.

21. The human Dimension • System failure caused by ‘human and organizational’ issues: • Lack of planning – may lead to much greater costs and project abandonment. • Poor training may result in people not cooperating with the information system leading to failure and project abandonment • Failure to take into consideration the users’ business knowledge may similarly lead to people not cooperating with the system leading to project failure and abandonment. • Poor methods, techniques and tools in the development of the system – may lead to systems with low reliability, maintainability, efficiency, functionality, and user satisfaction.

22. Information Systems • A system which assembles, stores, processes, and delivers information relevant to an organization (or to society), in such a way that the information is accessible and useful to those who wish to use it, including managers, staff, clients, and citizens. • An information system is a human activity (social) system which may or may not involve the use of computers

23. IS Components • Computer hardware – • Computer software – • People – • Data – • Procedures –

24. Types of Information systems Decision Support Systems ( DSS) This is a type of MIS that is more user friendly It‟s a set of programs and hardware that allows managers to interact with it to help make decisions. Its intended to help high level managers in their decision making. Its used in planning, modeling, analyzing alternatives and decision making. It's designed to improve the analytical capability of the decision maker.

25. DSS cont… This system helps to solve semi-structured problems. A semi-structured problem is one in which only parts of the problem have a clear-cut answer produced by a well accepted methodology.

26. Objectives of a D.S.S. 1) Analyze unexpected problems. 2) Interprete information flow and decision making activities. 3) Support all management levels 4) Be easy to use yet powerful and flexible.

27. Characteristics/Qualities of an effective D.S.S 1. Its decision focused and provides an access to an array of decision and analytical models. 2. Provides support for unstructured complex decision making problems. 3. Its design is oriented for top management functions where a lot of external information is also used.

28. Characteristics cont.. 4. Presence of a comprehensive database and a model base, providing flexibility, adaptability and quick response to the user. 5. Its suitability to the personnel decision making styles of individual decision makers. 6. Its capability to simulate business decisions mathematically and predict the result that will occur from taking one course of action versus another. 7. It has strong analytical capability.

29. Characteristics cont.. 8. Ability to analyze non-routine problems. 9. In supporting decision making process DSS, neither replaces judgement nor makes a decision for the users. 10. Ease to use i.e. its user friendly. 11. Supports decision making and problem solving at all levels of an organization. 12. Enhance co-ordination between the decision makers especially when many people have to co-operate to make decision. 13. Should be process independent and user controlled so that the user can direct the problem solving or decision making.

30. Executive Support Systems (E.S.S)/Executive Information Systems (E.I.S.) This is a special easy-to-use MIS designed for top magmt people who are not familiar with computer systems. They use graphics and touch screens to aid senior executives in collecting & obtaining the info they want. Is a software application that seeks to capture expertise in limited domains of knowledge and experience and apply this expertise in order to solve some problems.

31. ESS cont.. ESS provides managers with a flexible means of accessing information of tactical and strategic levels. ESS helps the managers to drill into the data, present the information in appropriate formats and find the information they need whenever they need it.

32. Management Information Systems (MIS)/Information Reporting System (IRS) Provides middle management with reports that summarize & categorise info derived from all the organizations‟ databases. The purpose of the report is to allow magmt to spot trends & to get an overview of current activities, as well as to monitor & control operational-level activities. Note: Although the term MIS is used to refer specifically any type of info system for managers, it is also used to refer specifically to middle management information systems.

33. MIS cont.. The scope of the reports & the features of their info vary according to the purpose. There is less need at the middle-management level for instant info than at the operational level. Reports can be periodic e.g. income statements, balance sheets, on demand or event initiated. Examples of reports generated by an MIS:- • Sales region analysis • Annual budget analysis • Capital investment analysis • Production schedules

34. Transaction Processing System (TPS)/Operations Information System (OIS) Data or information processing systems perform the essential role of collecting and processing the daily transactions of the organisation, hence the alternative term, transaction processing system. Eg ledger keeping, accounts receivable and payable, invoicing, credit control, rate demands and stock movements. TPS represents the lowest level in an organization's use of information systems. They provide management with basic raw materials used for DSS to produce management reports such as sales analysis figures etc.

35. TPS cont.. TPS mainly keep track of elementary and routine activities and transactions of the organisation, such as sales receipts, cash deposit,payroll, credit decisions. Support of day-to-day business operating activities or transactions is the first and most important objective of an information system. A computer-based TPS/Operations Information System or EDP system is focused at the operational level of the business.

36. TPS cont.. The management info produced by TPS consists of detailed reports of daily transactions (e.g. list of items sold or all the accounting transactions that have been recorded in various ledgers and registers or future transactions e.g. list of items that need to be ordered. TPS operate in only within one functional area of business e.g. Marketing, R&D, Accounting & Finance; Production has its own TPS.

37. Characteristics of Transaction Processing Systems (TPS) 1. Are pre-specified (i.e. their functions, decisions, rules and output formats cannot usually be changed by the end-user) 2. Are the source of data for other information systems e.g. DSS 3. Interact with the business environment 4. Are oriented towards the operational level of management.

38. Artificial Intelligence (AI) Is a new field/branch of computer science which researches and seeks, to produce systems that are intelligent i.e. systems that are capable of simulating or mimicking human intelligence. AI involves the ability of the computer to perform human thinking and reasoning. Areas were AI is applied are; Machine learning (to create machines or computer systems that are able to learn new concepts all by themselves); intelligent computer-aided learning systems; intelligent robots; language understanding and communication; machine vision systems; and expert systems (machines that mimic human expertise so that they can be used for day-to-day problem-solving and decision-making in domains of expertise just like human experts, by the experts themselves, or by those less-qualified).

39. Expert Systems (ESs)/Knowledge-Based Systems(KBSs) Are currently the most commercially successful products of AI research. Have emerged from the field of AI, which is the branch of computer science that is attempting to create computer systems that simulate human reasoning and sensation. Are computer programs that copy the knowledge of human expertise in a particular field. Acts as a consultant or expert to the user. An ESs is a knowledge intensive program that solves a problem involving human expertise. It can assist in decision making activities by asking relevant questions and explaining the reasons for adopting certain actions.

40. Ess Cont.. Such program are important in that:- (a) They preserve knowledge of experts that can be lost thro‟ death or retirement. (b) Put info in active form to be summarised immediately. (c) Assist juniors to think like professionals (d) Save time associated with training or employment of experts (e) Are used in different sectors of society to enhance the decision-making and problem- solving of experts in various domains. (f) ESs are forms of computer systems with an increasing range of applications within the different domains of expert decision-making and problem-solving in all sectors of society. Examples: Medical and Legal expert systems.

41. Office Automation Systems (OAS) This describes the phenomenon of merging computing and telecommunication technologies to produce the electronic office, alias ideal/paperless/ automated/modern office. OAS involves intensive and extensive application (use) of ICT in modern offices. ICT/OAS is the acquisition, processing, storage, and dissemination of vocal, pictorial, textual and numeric information by a micro-electronic based combination of computing and telecommunication systems.

42. Objective of office automation system (OAS) 1. Facilitates faster and more accurate data processing operations. 2. Access more extensive data over a short period. 3. Lowers operating costs by reducing labour and clerical expenses 4. Removes/reduce stationery and related resources from offices thus reducing operating costs. 5. Encourages telecommunication integration which altogether reduces production and distribution costs.

43. Spectrum/range/variety of Office Automation Systems (OAS) • Electronic Publishing Systems – Manipulate word, numbers and images to meaningful documents like newsletters, books, letters, project proposals, reports etc. This includes:- a. Word processing systems b. Desktop publishing (D.T.P.) systems 2. Electronic Communication Systems a. Electronic mail b. Voice mail (Voice store and forward) –

44. Spectrum cont… Involves use of digitized voice messages rather than electronic text. You first dial the number of voice mail service. In some secure systems, you may be asked to enter an identification code. Once you are accepted, you dial the voice mail number of the person you wish to contact and speak your message. c. Facsimile (Fax) allow organisations send messages in text, video, voice form and transmit copies of document within seconds reducing flow of paper messages. d. Cell phones

45. Spectrum cont.. 3. Electronic Meeting Systems (EMS) or Video conferencing – Involve use of video and audio communications to allow conferences & meetings to be held by participants who are scattered across the room, a building, a country or the globe. Reducing need to travel to & from meeting, saving employee time, increase productivity and reduce travel expenses and energy used.

46. Spectrum cont.. 4. Teleconferencing – Is a form of EMS. Sessions are held in real time, with major participants being televised while participants at remote site usually take part with voice input of questions & responses. Several communication carriers & hotel chains now offer teleconferencing services for such events like sales meetings, new product announcements & employee education & training.

47. Spectrum cont.. 5. Office Management Systems (OMS) – Is an office automation category that integrates electronic calendars, tickler files, electronic mail directories, schedulers and task management systems. Provides computer-based support services to managers & other office professional to help them organise their work activities. Office management s/ware computerizes manual methods of planning e.g. paper calendars, appointment books, directories, file folders, memos and notes

48. Spectrum cont.. 6. Telecommuting (Teleworking) – Is the use of telecommunication links by workers to replace commuting to work from their homes or to carry out work activities from temporary locations other than offices & homes. Telecommuter can access their organisations’ network and databases. Telecommuting workers & their colleagues also use e-mail or voice mail to communicate with each other about job assignments. Telecommuting is being tried by major corporations and independent professionals. It‟s most popular with people whose jobs involve a lot of individual work e.g. programmers. It is especially useful for the handicapped persons and working parents of young children.

49. Spectrum cont.. 7. [Document] Image processing – It allows users to electronically capture, store, process & retrieve images of documents that may include numeric data text, h/writing, graphics & photographs. Electronic Document Management (EDM) is based on image processing technology. EDM may interface with other systems e.g. w/processing, DTP, e-mail and voice mail. Image processing has improved productivity and has resulted to significant cost savings.

50. Stakeholders: Players in the Systems Game • A stakeholder is any person who has an interest in an existing or new information system. Stakeholders can be technical or nontechnical workers. • For information systems, the stakeholders can be classified as: • System owners • System users • Systems analysts • System designers • System builders • IT vendors and consultants