CLASS #1: AP

2. CLASS #1: AP MIDTERM CLASS #2: AP/AdvP CLASS #3: AdvP, PP CLASS #4: PP CLASS #5: ADVERBIALS CLASS #6: ADVERBIALS CLASS #7: ADVERBIALS AND MIDTERM OVERVIEW CLASS #8: MIDTERM OVERVIEW and SIMPLE SENTENCE CLASS #9: SIMPLE SENTENCE CLASS #10: SIMPLE SENTENCE CLASS #11: COMPLEX SENTENCE CLASS #12: COMPLEX SENTENCE CLASS #13: COMPLEX SENTENCE , WRAP-UP & ORAL EXAM HINTS

3. SINCE WE ARE SLIGHTLY BEHIND SCHEDULE IN TERMS OF PRACTICE CLASSES… • THE MIDTERMEXAM IS RE-SCHEDULED FOR • MAY 15, 2012 THAT’S TUESDAY FOUR WEEKS FROM NOW. • THE EXACT TIME WILL BE ANNOUNCED SOON, BUT IT WILL BE IN THE AFTERNOON AND IT WILL TAKE PLACE IN THE AUDITORIUM (‘AMFITEATAR’)

4. MIDTERM TEST - OVERVIEW WHAT IT REALLY LOOKS LIKE… IT’S WORTH TAKING A GOOD LOOK, BECAUSE IT’S WORTH 25% (OF YOUR FINAL GRADE)

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7. NOW, LET ME WALK YOU THROUGH EACH TASK… SO THAT YOU CAN BE FULLY PREPARED…

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9. 1. Identify the word class of the underlined items in the following sentences: ADJ • He was the last person to hear the news. __________ • He finished last. __________ • She thinks highly of her teachers. __________ • I’ve been feeling under stress lately. __________ • It may be many years before the situation improves. __________ • The task before us is a difficult one. __________ • We drove up to Inverness to see my father. __________ • In case of emergency, take the up escalator. __________ • You should have told me so before. __________ • The travel agent recommended a cruise up the Neva. __________ • Don’t you ever give up! __________ ADV ADV P CONJ. P ADV ADJ ADV P ADVERB PARTICLE OF A PHRASAL VERB

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11. 2. Underline the required phrases in the following sentences and analyze their structure and syntactic function. Examples: • 2.1. APs – Adjective phrases a) This is a very interesting book. S: _____________________ F: ______________________ b) She isn’t old enough to get married. S: _____________________ F: _____________________ c) We are delighted that you have made it. S: _____________________ F: ____________________ d) He found her prettier than her sister. S: _____________________ F: _____________________ She is [very happy] S: AdjP=Adv+Adj; F: Cs He speaks [fluently enough]. S: AdvP=Adv+Adv; F: A She has [a house in the woods] S: PP=P+NP; F: complement of NP AP=Adv + ADJ premodication in an NP AP=Adv + ADJ +Cl (n.f.) Cs AP=ADJ +Cl (f.) Cs AP=ADJ +PP Co

12. 2. Underline the required phrases in the following sentences and analyze their structure and syntactic function. Examples: • 2.2. AdvPs – Adverb phrases e) He plays the piano surprisingly well S: ___________________ F: ___________________ f) I hope to meet him soon enough. S: ____________________ F:___________________ g) He spoke too fast for us to take notes. S: _________________ F: _____________________ She is [very happy] S: AdjP=Adv+Adj; F: Cs He speaks [fluently enough]. S: AdvP=Adv+Adv; F: A She has [a house in the woods] S: PP=P+NP; F: complement of NP AdvP=Adv + ADV A(dverbial) AdvP=Adv + ADV A(dverbial) AdvP=Adv + ADV+ Cl(non-f.) A(dverbial)

13. 2. Underline the required phrases in the following sentences and analyze their structure and syntactic function. Examples: • 2.3. PPs – Prepositional phrases h) An extra £10 million will be sent to the flooded region. S: ___________________________ F: _________ i) For certain personal reasons I shall not be able to attend. S: ___________________________ F: _________ j) We’re very sorry about the damage we caused. S: ___________________________ F: ______________ k) From what I heard, the company’s in deep trouble. S: ___________________________ F: _____________ S: ___________________________ F: _____________ She is [very happy] S: AdjP=Adv+Adj; F: Cs He speaks [fluently enough]. S: AdvP=Adv+Adv; F: A She has [a house in the woods] S: PP=P+NP; F: complement of NP PP=P +NP obligatory ADVERBIAL PP= P + NP optional ADVERBIAL PP=P +NP complement of AP PP=P +Cl (finite, wh) optional ADVERBIAL PP=P +NP obligatory ADVERBIAL

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15. 3. Arrange the adjectives into the correct order within the NP: • dress (silk/ long/ extravagant/ red) _____________________________________________________ • dog (brown/ friendly/ large) _____________________________________________________ • biscuits (home-made/ delicious/ chocolate) _____________________________________________________ • skirt (striped / tight / silk) _____________________________________________________ • woman (thirty-year old / attractive / tall / blonde) _____________________________________________________ an extravagant long red silk dress a friendly large brown dog delicious home-made chocolate biscuits a tight striped silk skirt an attractive tall thirty-year old blonde woman

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17. 4. Transform the following sentences by changing the nouns with adjectives into verbs followed by suitable expressions (AdvP, AdjP, PP): • There has been a drastic fall in the dollar. _________________________________________________________ • Why did she give me such a stern look? _________________________________________________________ • Tom is a good cook. _________________________________________________________ • I gave her a fatherly talk. _________________________________________________________ • The flowers had a fragrant smell. _________________________________________________________ The dollar has fallen drastically. Why did she look at me so sternly? Tom cooks well. I talked to her in a fatherly way/manner. The flowers smelt/smelled fragrant.

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19. 5. Rephrase the sentences so that they begin with the words in italics: • I have never met such a man. • _______________________________________________ • You should not sign the document on any account. ____________________________________ • I realized what happened only when they left. _________________________________________ • A truer word has seldom been spoken. ______________________________________________ Never have I met such a man. On no account should you sign the document. Only when they left did I realize what happened. Seldom has a truer word been spoken.

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21. 6. Underline the adverbs in each of the following sentences and determine their syntactic functions (1. Adverbial - adjunct, conjunct, disjunct; 2. Modifier of – NP, AdjP, AdvP, PP, Det; 3. Complement of P): • Understandably, the project was a success. • She has an awfully bad temper. • He showed us straight to our seats. • Mary works very hard. • He is quite a nice man. • Yet, she could never forgive him. • Over twenty people came to the party. • This letter came from abroad. ADVERBIAL - disjunct MODIFIER - AP MODIFIER - PP 1:MODIFIER - AdvP 2:ADVERBIAL- adjunct MODIFIER - NP 1: ADVERBIAL - conjunct 2: ADVERBIAL- adjunct MODIFIER - Determiner Complement of P

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23. Exercises 7 & 8 deal with ADVERBIALS STRUCTURE, POSITION AND SEMANTIC CLASSIFICATION

24. 7. Underline all the adverbials in the following sentences and specify their a. type (adjunct, conjunct, disjunct), and subtype; b. position in sentence (I, M, F): • Example: The people upstairs are noisy [in the evening]. type: adjunct (time, time-when); position: F • a) It is my opinion, personally, that she is totally wrong. • b) Studying hard, she got a scholarship. • c) I go to school by bicycle. • d) The lady in the last row was talking very loudly. • e) In spite of his excellent knowledge, he failed the exam. DISJUNCT STYLE POSITION: M ADJUNCT CONTINGENCY: REASON POSITION: I ADJUNCT (to school) SPACE/PLACE: GOAL POSITION: F ADJUNCT (by bicycle) PROCESS: MEANS POSITION: F POSITION: F ADJUNCT PROCESS: MANNER ADJUNCT CONTINGENCY: CONCESSION POSITION: I

25. 7. Underline all the adverbials in the following sentences and specify their a. type (adjunct, conjunct, disjunct), and subtype; b. position in sentence (I, M, F): • Example: The people upstairs are noisy [in the evening]. type: adjunct (time, time-when); position: F • f) I miss you so much! • g) To sum up, the initial hypothesis was flawed. • h) She is probably going to dump him. • i) As far as science is concerned, this is irrelevant. • j) He usually sees his child twice a week. ADJUNCT DEGREE/INTENSIFIER: AMPLIFIER POSITION: F CONJUNCT SUMMATIVE POSITION: I ADJUNCT MODALITY: APPROXIMATION POSITION: M ADJUNCT VIEWPOINT (sentence adjunct) POSITION: I ADJUNCT (usually) TIME: FREQUENCY POSITION: M ADJUNCT (twice…) TIME: FREQUENCY POSITION: F

26. 7. Underline all the adverbials in the following sentences and specify their a. type (adjunct, conjunct, disjunct), and subtype; b. position in sentence (I, M, F): • k) Resentfully, she accepted his invitation. • l) I only tried to illustrate a problem. • m) By the way, talking softly like that, I hardly kept my cool. • n) Frankly speaking, he did not drive fast enough, so I could not pass Massa. SUBJUNCT: GENERAL/VOLITIONAL POSITION: I ADJUNCT ADJUNCT FOCUSING: LIMITER POSITION: M CONJUNCT (by…) TRANSITIONAL POSITION: I ADJUNCT (talking…) CONTINGENCY: CAUSE/REASON POSITION: I ADJUNCT (hardy) DEGREE/INTENSIFIER: DOWNTONER POSITION: M DISJUNCT (Frankly…) STYLE POSITION: I ADJUNCT (fast enough) PROCESS: MANNER POSITION: F ADJUNCT (so I …) CONTINGENCY: RESULT POSITION: F

27. 8. Underline all the adverbials in the following sentences and specify their syntactic structure (type of phrase or clause): • Example: The people upstairs are noisy [in the evening]. structure: PP • a) When red, these apples are ripe. • b) From an ecological point of view, these cars are considered to be very similar. • c) The man in the corner complained very angrily. • d) The woman standing behind you is rather sad, although she has just received her salary. VERBLESS ADJECTIVE CLAUSE PP AdvP FINITE CLAUSE

28. 8. Underline all the adverbials in the following sentences and specify their syntactic structure (type of phrase or clause): • Example: The people upstairs are noisy [in the evening]. structure: PP • e) Hardly anyone went to the meeting on Wednesday because they were not given enough time to prepare. • f) Driving home, I ran into some problems. • g) To be honest, I don’t think that she is telling the truth. • h) She risked her job in order to solve the problem. PP PP FINITE CLAUSE NON-FINITE CLAUSE NON-FINITE CLAUSE NON-FINITE CLAUSE

29. 8. Underline all the adverbials in the following sentences and specify their syntactic structure (type of phrase or clause): • Example: The people upstairs are noisy [in the evening]. structure: PP • i) She learns English with great enthusiasm. • j) They had covered a long distance. PP X = THERE ARE NO ADVERBIALS IN THIS SENTENCE. In “He swam a long distance.”, “a long distance” is an ADVERBIAL, because you can ask a question “How much did he swim?”, although it is ambiguous, since it can also be an object (A long distance was swum.).

30. THE SIMPLE SENTENCE LECTURE #1 – 2012-04-25

31. WHAT IS A SENTENCE? Basic concepts of a science are notoriously difficult to define, e.g. atom, number, society, etc.

32. SENTENCE • In the traditional view, a sentence is defined: • “A sequence of words that is complete in itself, conveying a statement, question, exclamation or command, typically containing a subject and predicate.” (OED) • “A group of words that usually contains a subject and a verb, and expresses a complete idea” (LDOCE) • “A grammatical unit that is syntactically independent and has a subject that is expressed or, as in imperative sentences, understood and a predicate that contains at least one finite verb.” (MWED)

33. SENTENCE • In computational linguistics, a sentence is defined: • “A sequence of words that begins with capital letter and ends in “.”, “!” or “?”.” (Manning and Schutze)

34. SENTENCE: some examples • “A dog sleeps.” • “A friendly dog in the kennel next to our housesleeps like a baby.” • “Yes.” • “No!” • “Good.” • “Aaaah, a dog!” • “The more, the merrier!” • “To hell with Skyrim!”

35. SENTENCE: some examples • “A dog sleeps [wherever itfinds a suitable place].” • “Iknow [that a friendly dog in the kennel next to our housesleeps like a baby].” • “Stop [doing that]!” • “Stop that!” • “Stop!” • “Wow!” • “A-ha.”

36. SENTENCE: what examples tell us • Not all sentences contain the subject and the verb: • Structures such as “Wow!”, “Yes.”, “Aaaah, a dog!”, “The more, the marrier.”, which do not contain a subject and a verb, are called SENTENCE FRAGMENTS or MINOR SENTENCES. • Structures such as “A dog sleeps.” and “I bought a book yesterday in a nice bookstore somewhere on the West Side.”, which do contain both a subject and a verb, are called FULL SENTENCES or MAJOR SENTENCES.

37. SENTENCE: what examples tell us • Not all sentences contain just one subject and one verb: • Structures such as “A dog sleeps.” and “I bought a book yesterday in a nice bookstore somewhere on the West Side.”, which contain just one subject and one verb, are called SIMPLE SENTENCES. • Structures such as “A dog sleeps [wherever it finds a suitable place].” and “I know [that a friendly dog in the kennel next to our house sleeps like a baby].”, which contain more than one subject and a verb (i.e. which contain more than one clause), are called COMPLEX SENTENCES.

38. WHAT IS A CLAUSE? SENTENCE vs. CLAUSE SENTENCE CLAUSE

39. CLAUSE • In the traditional view, a clause is defined: • “A unit of grammatical organization next below the sentence in rank, and in traditional grammar said to consist of a subject and predicate.” (OED) • “A group of words that contains a subject and a verb, but which is usually only part of a sentence.” (LDOCE) • “A group of words containing a subject and a predicate and forming part of a compound or complex sentence.” (MWED)

40. SENTENCE vs. CLAUSE • CLAUSE – a syntactic unit which is larger than a phrase and which consists of ONE PREDICATION. Clauses can be both FINITE and NON-FINITE, and DEPENDENT and INDEPENDENT. • SENTENCE – the biggest syntactic unit. It consists of at least one clause. Sentences are always FINITE. Sentences are always INDEPENDENT. • E.g. To be happy means to be in love. clause (non-finite), function: S, structure: VCs clause (non-finite), function: Od, structure: VA EVERY SENTENCE IS A CLAUSE. NOT ALL CLAUSES ARE SENTENCES. clause (finite) = sentence, structure: S(clause) V Od(clause)

41. SENTENCE vs. CLAUSE • Some other examples: I am happy. I want to be happy. I know that he wants to be happy. clause (finite) = sentence, structure: S V Cs clause (non-finite), function: Od, structure: V Cs clause (finite) = sentence, structure: S V Od(clause) clause (finite), function: Od, structure: S V Od (clause) clause (non-finite), function: Od, structure: VCs clause (finite) = sentence, structure: S V Od(clause)

42. SENTENCE vs. CLAUSE • The previous example showed us an important feature of all human languages including English: • LANGUAGES ARE RECURSIVE • IN OTHER WORDS, YOU CAN EMBED A CLAUSE INTO ANOTHER CLAUSE AND THEN EMBED YET ANOTHER CLAUSE INTO THAT CLASUE, AND THEN DO IT AGAIN… Mary is telling the truth. I know [that Mary is telling the truth]. I know [that John knows [that Mary is telling the truth]]. I know [that John knows [ that Bill knows [that Mary is telling the truth]]]. I know [that John knows [ that Bill knows [ that the police believe [that Mary is telling the truth]]]].

43. CLASSIFICATION OF SENTENCES STRUCTURAL CLASSIFICATION

44. CLASSIFICAITION OF SENTENCES • STRUCTURAL CLASSIFICATION = based on the NUMBER AND TYPE of clauses in a sentence: SIMPLE SENTENCE – consists of a SINGLE INDEPENDENT/MAIN CLAUSE. [The students] [didn’t know] [the answer to that question] = SVO SIMPLE SENTENCE – consists of a SINGLE INDEPENDENT/MAIN CLAUSE. [The students] [didn’t know] [the answer to that question] = SVO COMPLEX SENTENCE – consists of a MAIN/SUPERORDINATE CLAUSE and AT LEAST one DEPENDENT/SUBORDINATE CLAUSE. [The students] [know] [that the project deadline is difficult to meet] = SVO (O realized as clause) COMPUND SENTENCE – consists of a at least TWO MAIN CLAUSES. [She] [took] [the test] [in June] and [she] [passed] [it] [with flying colors]. S V O (A) Conj. S V O (A)

45. VERB CLASSES • One of the properties of verbs is VALENCY. • VALENCY is the number of obligatory elements that a particular verb takes. • On the basis of VALENCY verbs can be divided into five types.

46. COMPLEX TRANSITIVE VERBS – they require the DIRECT OBJECT and either the OBLIGATORY ADVERBIAL or the OBJECT COMPLEMENT: I put the book on the desk. = SVOA I elected him chairman. = SVOCo DITRANSITIVE VERBS – they require both the DIRECT OBJECT and the INDIRECT OBJECT: I gave her two letters. I showed the lady her new car. She sent me the statue. = SVOiOd MONOTRANSITIVE VERBS – they require the DIRECT OBJECT I wrote two letters. I own a small boat. She broke the statue. = SVO VERB CLASSES Sometimes one verb can belong to more than one class. If one verb belongs to more than one class we talk of MULTIPLE CLASS MEMBERSHIP. e.g. MAKE can be DITRANSITIVE, MONOTRANSITIVE and COMPLEX TRANSITIVE She made her children a chocolate cake. = DITRANSITIVE She made a chocolate cake. = MONOTRANSITIVE She made them extremely happy. = COMPLEX TRANSITIVE Verbs which can belong to more than one class, can sometimes cause AMBIGUITY: I called her a doctor. => two possible interpretations: DITRANSITIVE: She is sick. I called a doctor to help her. COMPLEX TRANSITIVE: She is a doctor. I addressed her as a doctor. INTENSIVE VERBS = also known as COPULAR or LINKING VERBS = verbs which are always followed by Cs or an obligatory A(dverbial): Mary seems happy. => “happy” is a subject complement = SVCs John is inhis room. He lives in Paris. => “in his room” and “in Paris” are obligatory adverbials = SVA INTRANSITIVE VERBS – require no obligatory complement , e.g. disappear, run, sleep, vanish, etc. The sun is shining. That piece of evidence disappeared. The baby is sleeping. = SV TRANSITIVE VERBS – they require at least one obligatory element, depending on the number and type of obligatory elements that they take, they can be divided into three subgroups.

47. CLAUSE TYPES ON THE BASIS OF VERB CLASSES

48. CLAUSE TYPES THE SINGLE VERB ELEMENT OF A SIMPLE SENTENCE IS ALWAYS A FINITE VP. SO, THESE ARE THE 7 TYPES OF SIMPLE SENTENCES IN ENGLISH

49. CLAUSE TYPES • Naturally, OPTIONAL ADVERBIAL may be added to sentences of any type: (Luckily) the sun is (already) shining. I (definitely) must send her a birthday card (tomorrow). • The S, V, O and C are OBLIGATORY sentence elements, whereas the A can be either OBLIGATORY or OPTIONAL. The A is obligatory in the SVA and SVOA clause types: John often goes to the cinema. S(A)VA She kept the children in bedduring the storm. SVOA(A)

50. SENTENCE ELEMENTS SYNTACTICALLY DEFINED SYNTACTIC CONSTITUENTS (S, V, O, C, A) can be realized in different forms: PHRASES and CLAUSES