French Revolution

1. French Revolution Exam Revision

2. The Study Design • Unit 3 • Area of Study One • Revolutionary ideas, leaders, movements and events. • French Revolution 1781 to 4 August 1789 • Outcome One • On completion of this unit the student should be able to evaluate the role of ideas, leaders, movements and events in the development of the revolution.

3. The Study Design • Unit 3 • Area of Study Two • Creating a New Society • French Revolution 5 August 1789 to Year 111 (1795) (Declaration of the Rights of Man and Citizen to the dissolution of the Convention Year 111) • Outcome Two • On completion of this unit the student should be able to analyse the challenges facing the emerging new order, and the way in which attempts were made to create a new society, and evaluate the nature of the society created by the revolution.

4. Here We Go... • AOS1: Revolutionary ideas, leaders, movements and events. • French Revolution 1781 to 4 August 1789

5. The Royal Family • Where does the royal authority come from? • Theory • Political authority- the theory of absolutism • France did not have a constitution, the definition of royal power was contained in assorted documents, eg. The Fundamental Laws of the Kingdom and as an accepted practice. • Religious authority- the rule by divine right • The French monarch received his power directly from God. • Dynasty • The lineage of the royal family- the idea of a pure bloodline- the ‘sacredness’ of the king • Public perception • Competence- the belief that the King cam rule well. • Benevolence- the belief that the King is a loving father of his people. Question: By 1789, do these ideas still exist? Why/why not?

6. The Royal Family, cont. • King Louis XVI • Awkward and timid, no man appeared less like a king than Louis XVI. • 20 years old when he came to the throne in 1774. • On his accession, France was poverty-stricken and burdened with debts, and heavy taxation had resulted in widespread misery among the French people.   • Greatest fault was that he was always ready to listen to others and follow their advice-when this advice was good, everything was fine; but later in Louis XVI's reign the advice was bad and it cost the king his life. • He was repeatedly under the influence of the beautiful but frivolous and extravagant queen, Marie Antoinette.   • He was also swayed by his selfish courtiers, who opposed any financial reforms.

7. The Royal Family, cont. • Queen Marie Antoinette • Youngest daughter of the Austrian Empress of the Holy Roman Empire, Maria Theresa of Austria, and the Holy Roman Emperor, Francis I. • Married Louis XVI on May 16, 1770. • Often referred to as Madame Deficit- due to her luxurious tastes. • Yet the stories of her excesses are overstated. • Rather than ignoring France's growing financial crisis, she reduced the royal household staff, eliminating many unnecessary positions that were based solely on privilege. In the process she offended the nobles, adding their condemnation to the scandalous stories spread by royal hopefuls.

8. The Social Structure under the Old Regime • Corporate society • Made up of powerful groups, enjoying special customs, laws and privileges. • Privilege • ‘special deal’ worked out between the King and a certain group. • The First Estate- Clergy • 0.6% of the population • Owned about 10% of the land • Received tithe from the third estate- 8-10% of people’s income or value of their crops and livestock. • The Second Estate- Aristocracy/Nobles • 0.4% of the population • Owned 30% of the land • Dominated the highest administration roles in France • Enjoyed tax exemptions- although still paid some taxes • The Third Estate • Largest group in French society • Poor, peasants, urban workers, artisans, shopkeepers, middle-class professionals, bourgeois landowners, and financiers (millionaires of their age) What issues exist within the social structure of France and what impact will this have on future events?

9. The Enlightenment • Throughout the 18th century, the thinkers of the Enlightenment criticised the monarchy, the Catholic Church and the nobility. • For many historians it was this criticism of the Old Regime, that ultimately resulted in its demise. • Found some of its most powerful expression in the works of Montesquieu, Voltaire, Diderot and Rousseau. • Their ideas were extremely varied, but generally emphasised using science, progress and reason to create a more humane world. The Impact of their Ideas • The philosophes and other revolutionary leaders felt that their ideas challenged the old regime. • Historians argue that they crystallised people’s grievances. • Yet enlightenment ideas did not reach the majority of people. • Ideas of the Enlightenment were linked up with newer social movements during the 1780s, most notable the increasing confidence and ambition of the bourgeoisie and the growing doubt of some members of the privileged orders.

10. The Financial Crisis • Attempts to resolve the Financial Crisis • Tax (fiscal) reforms proposed by Turgot (1774-1776), Necker (1776-1781), Calonne (1783-1787), Brienne (1787-1788) • Calling of the Estates General 1788 • The Impact of the Financial Crisis • Public perception of the King’s competence- declined • Resentment of Marie Antoinette • Resistance by traditional bodies: the Assembly of Notables and the parlements (the Aristocratic revolt) • Popular agitation • Repression by the King

11. Marxist Interpretation • For much of the 20th century the dominant interpretation of the French Revolution has been the Marxist interpretation. • Marxist historians such as George Lefebvre and Albert Soboul see the Revolution as predominantly a Bourgeois revolution. • Yet they see the revolution as going through four clear stages. • The Aristocratic Revolt- 1787-1789 • The Bourgeois Revolt- 1788-1789 • The Popular Revolt- July 1789 • The Peasant Revolt- July-August 1789

12. The First Phase- The Aristocratic Revolt, 1787-1788 • Privileged orders resisted the government’s attempts to make fiscal reforms. • The Assembly of Notables (22 February 1787- 25 May 1787, then November- 12 December 1788) • The Parlements (July 1787) • Their resistance was crucial, as it prevented the government from attaining international loans. • The Monarchy was forced to retreat back into authoritarianism. • This is seen as a ‘trigger’ of the French Revolution- as it progressively drew in the bourgeoisie, urban working-classes and peasants into the rebellion.

13. The calling of the Estates General • As a result of the Aristocratic revolt- popular resistance began to gathered pace across France between May and June in 1788. • By August 1788, the French nation had slid into bankrupsy. • Brienne had no option but the call the Estates General for 1 May 1789.

14. Cahiers de Doleances (the Books of Grievances) • Drawing up of lists of grievances to be presented to the Estates General • Nearly everyone in France contributed in some way to drawing up the books. • The process created new expectations among all social groups. • The process for each estate appears open and fair. • Yet for the Third Estate a problem arose; • Majority of peasants were illiterate and had to rely on local bourgeois to write the document for them- the process was dominated by the educated middle-class. • The final ‘general cahiers’ were not a representation of the Third Estate as a whole.

15. The Working People- 1788-1789 • The calling of the Estates General led to a surge of optimism. • Yet the situation for the working was about to get suddenly worse: • Food crisis- a savage storm in July 1788 devastated crops around Paris- the result was increasing bread prices- with some families spending 65%-90% of their income on basic foods. • Working people began to link these problems with current political issues- including the rebelling parlements • This culminated in the Reveillon Riots of April 1789- the beginning of a conflict between rich and poor.

16. The Second Phase- the Bourgeois Revolt, 1788-1789 • This was the result of conflict over the Estates General. • At the last meeting in 1614- each estate was made up of roughly equal number of representatives- meaning that the two privileged minority orders were over represented compared with the large Third Estate- worse they voted by order- therefore the First and Second Estate would always outvote the Third Estate.

17. The Second Phase- the Bourgeois Revolt, 1788-1789- cont. • The provincial assembly of Vizille- proposed a different system of voting • Doubling the Third Estate- giving the Third Estate twice as many representatives as the other two estates. • And instead of voting by order they vote by head • Radical pamphleteers (eg. Sieyes) began churning out pamphlets which suggested this form of voting. • In December 1788 Necker made half a decision, by doubling the Third Estate- yet trying to please the privileged he refused voting by head.

18. The meeting of the Estates General • When the Estates General met (5 May 1789) it still reflected the hierarchies of the Old Regime. • The matter of voting had still not been settled. • The Third Estate invited other estates to join it in a common assembly- they elected Bailly (Mayor of Paris) as their president (10 June)- members of the the clergy began to join them (13-16 June)- a vast majority voted to call themselves the National Assembly (17 June).

19. The Tennis Court Oath, June 1789 • 20 June- the deputies of the new National Assembly- arrived at the Estates General to find that they had been locked out . • They marched out of the Palace of Versailles and to a local tennis court, big enough to hold them all. • It was there that the deputies swore the Tennis Court Oath- under Bailly’s leadership. • Remain until the nation is given a constitution • Meanwhile the clergy had voted to join the national assembly and did so two days later.

20. The Third Phase- the Popular Rising, July 1789 • As a result of all the points above by July 1789 Paris was ready to explode. • The King called for military intervention to put an end to the popular agitation. • The radical bourgeoisie were challenging royal authority- they knew that the popular rising could aid their cause. • The Parisian crowd was spoiling for a fight- bourgeois such as Desmoulins and Danton, began calling for the people to arm themselves and rebel. • But worse of all the army was beginning to defect.

21. The Storming of the Bastille • 14 July, 1789 • 30,000 people attacked Les Invalides, a military hospital- the crowd looted the hospital and seized a battery of 12 cannons and 40,000 muskets and dragged them across town. • Their target was the royal prison of the Bastille- believed to be an emotive symbol of the Old Regime- in search of gunpowder and shot. • The crowd attempted first to negotiate a handover • When that failed they broke into the courtyard- the guards opened fire, killing approx. 98 people • The crowd was reinforced when approx. 60 French guard arrived. • The governor of the Bastille de Launay was forced to surrender.

22. The Fourth Phase- the Peasant Revolt (The Great Fear), July- August 1789 • News of events in Paris spread to the provincial cities and countryside- where revolutionary outbreaks also began to occur. • This rebellion sprang from the long-term anger over feudal dues, hunting rights, tithes, royal taxes and bread prices. • The bad harvest of 1788 also greatly affected peasant families. • A whole village population, led by their officials, would systematically go from one castle to another, breaking into the strongroom which contained the feudal documents and burning them.

23. The August Decrees- 4 August 1789 • The reports of the peasant revolts terrified the deputies of the National Assembly- as many bourgeois deputies were themselves landowners. • This led to the night of ‘Patriotic Delirium’- where attention was paid to the rebellion in the countryside. • Nearly 100 deputies (the Breton Club)- asked that the assembly recognise the grievances of the peasants and relieve them of the feudal dues. • The debate was chaotic and emotional- some nobles gave up their privilege- this led to the stirring introduction of the August Decrees- abolishing feudalism altogether. • Abolish privilege • Establish equal responsibility for taxation • Abolish venal offices • End of feudal dues. • Yet this took time as deputies felt financially they could not abolish feudalism altogether, or cancel feudal dues. • It was not until 1792 and 1793- that the assembly finally abolished feudal dues- as the peasants had simply stopped paying them.

24. Summarise the four stages which according to Marxist historians makes up the French Revolution? • By August 1789, who held power in France? • What were the key revolutionary ideals of 1789?

25. Ideas • Think about the ideas that came out of the Enlightenment- ideas relating to Liberty, Equality and Property- how influential were these? • Think about the documents we read by Sieyes and Mirabeau- what were their ideas and how influential were they? • What about merit and utility? • Think about the Declaration of the Rights of Man and Citizen- this is where many of these ideas were put into practice. What were the most significant revolutionary ideals?

26. Leaders Royal Leaders • Think about Louis XVI, Necker, Calonne and Brienne. • What mistakes did these leaders make, which ultimately resulted in the revolution? • Think about their response to: • The financial crisis • The calling of the Estates General • The popular rising

27. Leaders- cont. Revolutionary Leaders • Think about leaders such as Mirabeau, Desmoulins, Bailly, and Lafayette. • These leaders moved quickly and acted decisively as the events of the revolution where developing and were able to push the revolution into dramatic new directions. • Yet many mistakenly believe that these leaders led and encouraged the popular movement- yet it important to be aware that the popular movement was very powerful and radical and needed no encouragement from leaders- therefore they spent a lot of time trying to channel the energies of the popular movement to serve their purpose. What was the role of leaders in the revolution, were they the driving force or did they simply guide the revolution?

28. Movements • Think about the popular movement, peasant movement, bourgeoisie movement, aristocratic movement- all very different, yet influential in their own way. • Most important was the mass movement or crowd. • What was its impact? • The role of the crowd was not new- working people in France had a long tradition of action or protest and the use of violence. • The crisis of the French Revolution revealed how strong the crowd could be. • Also revealed that working people were not only concerned with material grievances but also national political issues. • Through 1789- the popular movement revealed that they could act independently of the middle-class political leaders. By August 1789, what was the most significant movement in the French Revolution?

29. Events • Think about the impact of the following events and think- what would have happened if these did not occur? • The Assembly of Notables, the battle over the Parlements, the calling of the Estates General, drafting the Books of Grievances, doubling the Third Estate, the Reveillon revolts, the declaration of the National Assembly, the Tennis Court Oath, the King orders troops to Paris, the capture of the Bastille, the Peasant revolt, the ‘August Decrees’ Which events were most significant in causing the revolution?

30. So do you know what you need to know?

31. Key Knowledge This knowledge includes • the chronology of key events and factors which contributed to the revolution. • the causes of tensions and conflicts generated in the old regime that many historians see as contributing to the revolution; for example, rising and unfulfilled class expectations; fluctuations in economic activity; failed attempts at economic, social or political reform; perceived social or economic inequality or lack of political voice; the impact of war or economic crisis that contributed to revolution such as the harvest crisis and state bankruptcy in the French economy. • the ideas and ideologies utilised in revolutionary struggle; for example, ideas of liberty, equality, fraternity. • the role of revolutionary individuals and groups in bringing about change; for example, in France, Sièyes, Lafayette, Mirabeau.

32. And then... • AOS2: Creating a New Society • French Revolution 5 August 1789 to Year 111 (1795) (Declaration of the Rights of Man and Citizen to the dissolution of the Convention Year 111)

33. Declaration of Rights of Man & Citizen, (26 August, 1789) • Its various articles constitute the main themes of Enlightenment political thinking, and it espoused ideals of equality before the law, due process, natural rights, freedom of religion, free speech, and the separation of powers • At the time it was printed in 1000s of leaflets and distributed around France to provide propaganda for the Revolution. • Still forms the prologue of French Constitution What was the purpose of the Declaration of Rights of Man and Citizen?

34. Key Individuals • Lafayette • Liberal noble • Appointed Commander of the National Guard • Bailly • Mayor of Paris

35. March to Versailles (October 5-6, 1789) • March by the "Poor Women of Paris" to Versailles to insist that the King and Government move to Paris, which they did. • From now on the government functioned under threat of mob violence.

36. The Church (late 1789-1790) • This period brought massive a shift in power from the Church to the state. • On 2 December 1789- The Assembly addressed the financial crisis by having the nation take over the property of the Church • In order to rapidly monetize this enormous amount of property, the government introduced a new paper currency, assignats. • Legislation enacted in 1790 abolished; • the Church's authority to levy a tax on crops • cancelled special privileges for the clergy, • confiscated Church property. • The Civil Constitution of the Clergy, passed on 12 July 1790, turned the remaining clergy into employees of the State and required that they take an oath of loyalty to the constitution. What impact did the Civil Constitution of the Clergy have on the new society in France?

37. Flight to Varennes (June 20, 1791) • By mid 1791 the National Constituent Assembly had begun drawing up a constitution. • This was a politically moderate document that attempted to establish a Constitutional Monarchy. • King Louis XVI, finding himself with less political power tried to flee France. • He was stopped at Varennes and brought back on June 24 a virtual prisoner. What was the significance of the Flight to Varennes in terms of the development of republicanism in France?

38. Champ de Mars Massacre, 17 July 1791 • Crowd of 50,000 flowed to the Champ de Mars to sign a petition demanding the deposition of the King. • Debates exist concerning the events that followed, yet it is believed that the crowd turned on two suspicious individuals, preparing to murder them. Bailly called in the national guard, led by Lafayette, to restore order. Stones were thrown, shots were fired and suddenly the guards opened fire on the closely packed crown, about 50 people were killed and many more injured. • This was a crucial turning point because it was the first time that revolutionaries had fired upon fellow revolutionaries. What impact did this event have on the reputation of Lafayette?

39. Declaration of Pillnitz (August 27, 1791) • Statement issued by the Habsburg Holy Roman Emperor Leopold II (Marie Antoinette’s brother) and Frederick William II of Prussia. • Called European powers to intervene if Louis XVI of France was threatened. • The declaration stated that Austria would go to war if and only if all the other major European powers would also go to war with France.

40. The Constitution of 1791 (Sept. 3, 1791) • The first constitution of France • The Declaration of Rights of Man and Citizen became it preamble • It created a French constitutional monarchy • There was much controversy over the level of power granted to the king. • After long negotiations, the constitution was reluctantly accepted by King Louis XVI in September 1791. • Unicameralism (the practice of having only one legislative or parliamentary chamber) was adopted as per the proposal of Sieyès, in order to disable the possibilities of the nobility's overpowering in the assembly. • Gilbert's idea of the king's veto also passed. • Sovereignty, though, was clearly defined as belonging to the people. What was the system of government outlined in this constitution?

41. Legislative Assembly (October, 1791) • The Legislative Assembly took over government on October 1 1791. • With the King unwilling to cooperate, it proved ineffective, and party conflict dominated its proceedings. • This eventually led to a radicalization of the Revolution.

42. Political Clubs • From February 1790 onwards, the revolutionary movement worked mainly through political clubs. This enabled ordinary citizens to feel that they could become involved in national politics on this popular level. The club movement therefore linked up with the popular movement. • Sans-culottes: (not a club- a social group) literally means ‘without knee-breeches’ and refers to a broad group of urban, working class radicals. • Jacobins: Founded December 1789. A group of radical democratic republican deputies elected to the National Constituent Assembly after 1791. • Feuillants: Founded in 1791 by the constitutional monarchists, which split from the Jacobins. • Cordeliers: Founded in 1790 and formed topromote the Rights of Man and Citizen. Considered to be more radical than the Jacobins. Included many sans-culottes. • Girondans: group of moderate republican deputies elected to the National Constituent Assembly after 1791. Had a large following amongst the wealthy bourgeoisie. • Montagnards (the Mountain): the Jacobin deputies in the Convention. Supported by the sans-culottes. Made up the majority of the Committee of Public Safety.

43. International War • War breaks out (April, 1792) The beginning of the French Revolutionary Wars. • Following the Declaration of Pillnitz, the Girondins pushed the Legislative Assembly to declare war against the Austrians. • The French armies were soon retreating, which caused radicalization at home. How did the experience of war in France, add to the radicalisation of the revolution?

44. Responses to International War • Panic, paranoia and repressive measures: • Reports of defeats in the war created panic and then accusations • Brissotans and Girondins were condemned for starting the war • Foreigners in Paris were placed under police surveillance • The King • Fear that he would lead a coup d’etat- radicals began demanding the deposition of the King • Louis began dismissing radical Girondins from the convention • The Popular Movement (journee 20 June 1792) • Began demonstrating its power • Led an attack against the Tuileries, where they forced Louis to wear the red bonnet and toast the revolution- they demanded an end to Louis’ veto and the recall of the Girondin minsters- Louis refused- the crowd withdrew. • The near insurrection made the Girondins more conservative and the Jacobins more radical. • Opening up the National Guard- anyone • The Duke of Brunswick’s Manifesto (25 July 1792) • Commander of the Austrian-Prussian army, declared the Paris population personally responsible for the safety of the royal family- if the family were harmed, Austrian troops would subject the entire city to ‘militray execution’ (destruction) • The formation of the Revolutionary Commune • The original 48 administrative sections of France were transformed into one virtual ‘parliament’- working people were excluded. • They were radical- 47 of the 48 units demanded the deposition of the King • The first measures of Terror

45. Key Individuals • Danton • Popular leader and member of the Revolutionary Commune • Very influential in organising the war effort. • Powerful speaker

46. Storming of the Tuileries (10 August, 1792) • Insurgents assailed the Tuileries were the King and Queen had been held. • At the Tuilleries Palace Louis has only 900 mercenary Swiss guards, another 700 royalist volunteers and 2000 National Guards whose loyalty was doubtful. • The King fled with his family to the National Assembly • At the palace the National Guards joined the demonstrators and they asked the Swiss troops to surrender- they refused and began firing on the crowd. • The crowd surged the palace, murdering servants and Swiss guards. • Some were decapitated and their heads impaled on pikes, others thrown from windows while still dying, and naked bodies of Swiss guards were dragged away for further desecration. • About 300 defenders were killed in the actual fighting, while another 500 Swiss guard were slaughtered in cold blood. • The King and queen ended up prisoners and the Legislative Assembly suspended the monarchy.

47. France Declared a Republic (September, 1792) • In August and September, 1792, there were mass riots in Paris (as a result of failures in the war), and the Legislative Assembly was forced to call for new elections to a National Convention • The newly formed National Convention first met September 21 1792 and declared France a Republic as its first act. • This date was later retroactively adopted as the beginning of Year One of the French Revolutionary Calendar.

48. French Revolutionary Calendar • Started from 22 September 1792. • Note that the Republican calendar was not, in fact, introduced until 24 November 1793. • It was abolished on 31 December 1805 by the new Emperor Napoleon Bonaparte, but was used again during the Paris Commune in 1871. • How the republican calendar worked • Each year, there were twelve months of 30 days. • A month was divided into three décades of ten days, with the décade’s last day being a rest day. It was a criminal offence to close a shop on what before had been a Sunday. That there were only three rest days a month, instead of four, was unpopular amongst the population. • The months were called: • Vendémiaire- (22 Sep ~ 21 Oct) wine-harvesting • Brumiare- (22 Oct ~ 20 Nov) foggy • Frimiare- (21 Nov ~ 20 Dec) frosty • Nivôse- (21 Dec ~ 19 Jan) snowy • Pluviôse- (20 Jan ~ 18 Feb) rainy • Ventose- (19 Feb ~ 20 Mar) windy • Germinal- (21 Mar ~ 19 Apr) plant germination • Floréal- (20 Apr ~ 19 May) flowering • Prairial- (20 May ~ 18 Jun) meadows • Messidor- (19 Jun ~ 18 Jul) harvesting • Thermidor- (19 Jul ~ 17 Aug) heat • Fructidor- (18 Aug ~ 16 Sep) fruit harvesting

49. September Massacres, 1792 • 2 Sept. the Austrian army captured the last fortress before Paris- stories of women being raped and babies being impaled on spikes reached Paris. • This caused panic- generating violence. • Rumours spread by the popular press that the prisons were full of conspirators and Marat urged people to go to the prisons and murder refractory priests and other traitors such as imprisoned Swiss Guards. • Executions were carried out by beating the victims to death with metal bars. • At the Abbaye Prison, murder squads carried hatchets, razors and saws and under the guidance of a local butcher, literally hacked 19 priests to death.

50. Key Individuals • Marat • Founder of the extremist newspaper L’Amni du peuple • Associated with the Jacobins • Was able to exercise direct control over the Parisian mob. • Continually called for the blood of the people’s enemies.