Perception Chapter 7

1. Perception Chapter7

2. Introduction This lecture will: Identify and define elements of the process of perception and show its organizational effects Discuss human information processing Discuss features of workplace behaviour – including error creation, interpersonal behaviour, stereotyping, performance expectations and inter-group relations Outline aspects of perception including manipulations, processing limits, use of cues, the nature of schemata and the way in which we perceive causes

3. Basic Features of Perception What is perception? It has been defined in different ways in various disciplines Eysenck and Keane (2005) define it as ‘basic psychological systems associated with sensory modality, together with central brain processes which integrate and interpret the output from these physiological systems’ Perception is selective, subjective and largely automatic The basic ingredients of our perceptions are sensory stimuli, which the brain sifts and interprets in a meaningful way Fiske and Taylor (1991) defined us as ‘Motivated Tacticians’ constantly refining ambiguous information to suit our objectives in the case in hand This process is partly automatic as it relies on previous knowledge and also cultural assumptions/backgrounds/nationalities

4. Figure 7.1 - The Link between perception, behaviour and the environment

5. Figure 7.2 - The elements and process of perception

6. The Sequence of Perception Is perception 'top down' or 'bottom up'? - A debate attends this issue: Meaning is attached to past experiences conditions a ‘construction process’ If construction of meaning is led by existing knowledge/expectations, it is said to be top down If it is led by external sensory data then it is said to be bottom up This latter is more intensive but attuned to changes in the external environment A perceptual bias is a judgement with supportive basis from cues (Halo and Horns effects)

7. Perceptual Tricks and Illusions Visual perception can be unreliable or deceptive – as shown by the Necker Cube and Mueller Lyle Illusion (see the next slide) These tricks involve the manipulation of sensory impressions Similarly, different languages can frame meaning differently to give different ways of understanding things (linguistic relativity) Bloom argued we all share universal interpretations of the world but language cues will vary across the international sphere This applies to ‘body language’ too This is an issue with international business communication

8. The Necker Cube The Mueller Lyle Illusion

9. Processing Limitations Cognitive processing underlies selective attention Aberrations in processing include: ‘Dual task interference’ – two at once! ‘Change blindness’ – unnoticed and marginal changes in our perception ‘Inattentional blindness’ – filtering out information Errors in perception include lapses in concentration which can lead to errors at work: A good example is the KLM plane crash of 1977 One way to avoid this is to focus on critical areas (Hockey, 2002) However, ‘trade-offs' can occur in terms of individuals simplifying tasks which can lead to problems:

10. Existing Knowledge in Perception We recall by virtue of schema – knowledge packets or mental models of the world Schema (or ‘schemata’) are inter-related cognitions that allow us to quickly interpret the world We have a self-schema related to 'who we are'! Schema can be ‘top down’ or 'bottom up’ and can be activated by external cues (figure 7.5 on the next slide) Schema are 'automatic' and become second nature responses. Some are chronically accessible

11. Figure 7.5 - The Schema Activation Process

12. The Use and Misuse of Perceptual Cues Individuals have areas of primary attention or personal sensitivity; these are hot buttons for data that matters to them The process of invoking particular response schema in individuals (by engaging certain cues in media manipulation) are termed dog-whistle tactics These tactics are used in many arenas to elicit a desired response

13. The Stability of Schemata Reminder: schemata are mental frames or pictures of the world that we make... They develop over time and are resilient Perception often adjusts data to fit them Their resilience can lead to a resistance to change – for example in a situation of strategic change (Hodgkinson’s 1997 study of estate agents’ views of a static property market) Stereotypes are generalized schemata about individuals or groups (Hogg and Vaughan, 1995)

14. The Stability of Schemata (2) Schemata affect our perceptions of particular groups – for example, those with disabilities, ethnic minorities, those of a certain age etc The idealized masculine manager is a certain kind of stereotype built on a strong entrenched ‘schemata’ Self-categorization theory extends our own ways of forming self-identity: Our self-concept can be defined by social groupings; this can lead to a definition of ingroup, or outgroup tendencies

15. Perceiving Causes (1) We evolve expectations as to causes: These can be stable or transitory They can relate to the situation or a person These explanations are called causal attributions One particular form of causal attribution is called perceived self efficacy: It relates to a belief in one’s capacities to realize a specific goal (Bandura, 1997) If we believe we cannot make a goal, that is negative; termed aself-fulfilling prophecy

16. Perceiving Causes (2) Kelley (1992) suggests that we use information about the inter-relationship of person/behaviour/cause to infer specific types of causal attribution: - These include aspects like the distinctiveness of given behaviour or consistency in a given situation, and consensus (does everyone behave in that way in that situation?) Causal attribution is also subject to biases such as the false consensus effect or the fundamental attribution error It may also relate to an individual’s ‘explanatory style’ – a predisposition to employ a particular explanation (Peterson, 2000)

17. Perception and Employee Relations Perception plays a vital role in the employment process Individuals are tiered in organizations and their perceptions form a vital part of the working relationship/firm culture Agreement or consensus is viewed as a positive in employment relations Job satisfaction is seen as linked to trust Conflict is a result of disagreement between parties; strikes are a common form of conflict Individuals have what is called a‘psychological contract’ This is a cornerstone of good relations However, there can be differences in interpretation over what constitutes the basis of the work agreement between employee and organization