Digestive System part II Chemistry and Cells

1. Digestive System part IIChemistry and Cells

2. Atoms • Three major parts. • Protons:Positive Charge. Inside Nucleus • Neutrons: Neutral Charge. Inside Nucleus: • Electrons: Negative Charge. Outside Nucleus • 2 electrons in first shell • 8 electrons in the second shell • Eight is Great! Will not React with other atoms. • If the outer shell is not full it will react.

3. Combining Chemicals Periodic Table Bonding • Compound: When two or more different elements combine. • Hydrogen Bond: H2O • When hydrogen bonds with another atom. Creates a polar molecule. • Covalent bond: CO2 • When atoms on the same side of the chart (same size) bond. Share electrons. • Both Hydrogen and Covalent bonds form molecules, ionic bonds do not. Ionic/ Covalent Bonds

4. Combining Chemicals continued • Ionic Bonds: When atoms on different sides of the chart (different size) bond. Steal electrons. Create Ions. Make teeth and bones. • Ion: Charged particle either negative or positive. NaCl = table salt • Electrolytes: Ionic compounds that breaak into cations and anions when dissolved. (Salt) • Free Radical: Electrically charged ion with an unpaired electron in its outer shell.

5. Antioxidants, What are they? • Substances that inactivate oxygen derived free-radicals • Slows damage from free-radicals • Examples: Selenium, Zinc Beta-carotene, Vitamins C & E Free Radicals Acai Berry

6. Ph Scale • Measured on grams of Hydrogen (H+) • pH of 1= 1g of H+, pH of 2= .01g of H+ • Acid: form hydronium ions (H+) • pH of less than 7 ( 1 to 6.9) • Base: form hydroxide ions (OH-) • pH of more than 7 (7.1 to 14) • Acid + Base: salt & water, the solution is neutral with a pH of 7. • NaOH + HCL = H2O + NaCl with a pH of 7

7. What is a Buffer? • Chemical substances that neutralizes small amounts of an acid or base added to a solution. • Why are these important to your body? • three main buffers in the body: • bicarbonate buffer system: in the blood and stomach to neutralize acids • protein buffer system: inter and extra cellular buffering used with hemoglobin and blood • phosphate buffer system: used in the urinary system to remove H+ ions and make urine acidic

8. Metabolism: All chemical reactions necessary to maintain life • Catabolism- substances broken down, energy released and captured to make ATP • Anabolism - larger molecules built from smaller ones • Question: Why are they called anabolic steroids?

9. Metabolism: What do we eat? • Carbohydrates (glucose) - broken down to make ATP • Fats - build cell membranes, myelin sheaths, insulate, ATP • Proteins - structural materials hoarded by body cells, ATP

10. Organic Compounds:contain C-H bonds Carbohydrates • Carbohydrate: fast energy • made of Carbon, Hydrogen, and Oxygen. 1:2:1 proportion. Sacchar = sugar • Monosaccharides:C6H12O6, glucose and fructose • Disaccharides: 2 sacchar’s: Sucrose, table sugar • Polysaccharides: Many sacchar’s: Cellulose (wood) and starch.

11. Dietary Sources of Major Nutrients - Carbohydrates • From plants except lactose and glycogen in meats • sugar - fruit, sugar cane, milk • starch - grains, legumes, root vegetables • cellulose - most vegetables

12. Carbohydrate Metabolism • Carbs - preferred fuel to produce ATP from glucose (blood sugar): energy from bonds broken binds phosphate to ADP to make ATP • Fastest energy: simple carbs • Fast but steady energy: complex carbs • Carbon atoms leave as CO2 and hydrogen combines w/ oxygen to make water • Question: Why do we breath out CO2?

13. Carbohydrate Metabolism - Homeostasis of blood glucose • Hyperglycemia - high levels; excess stored as glycogen and converted to fats • Hypoglycemia - low levels; liver breaks down stored glycogen and releases glucose to blood

14. Organic Compounds: C-H bonds • Lipids: long term energy, very few oxygen atoms • Cholesterol: LDL & HDL • (HDL is heart healthy) • Saturated fats: All C bonded to H. Lard, and butter. Don’t eat Transfats (they have been hydrogenated) • Unsaturated fats: C is double bonded to itself. Oil. Currently considered healthier. Trans fats Lipids

15. Lipids • Neutral fats: saturated in animal products, unsaturated in seeds, nuts, vegetable oils • Cholesterol - egg yolk, meats, and milk • Phospholipids: the plasma membrane • PS What organelle in the cell makes lipids? • Answer: Smooth ER

16. Lipid Metabolism • Liver - make ATP, synthesize lipoproteins, clotting protein and cholesterol for membranes or steroid hormones • Form myelin sheaths and fatty cushions around organs • Most concentrated form of energy • Liver makes Bile ships it to the Gallbladder. Bile emulsifies fats. The bilirubin in bile turns feces brown.

17. Lipid Metabolism • To be used for ATP synthesis, it must be broken down into acetic acid; when not enough glucose, acetone accumulates in blood making it acidic (acidosis/ketosis) • no carb diets, diabetes, and starvation • People smell of keytones when they get diabetes, why?

18. Lipid Metabolism • Liver - make ATP, synthesize lipoproteins, clotting protein and cholesterol for membranes or steroid hormones • Form myelin sheaths and fatty cushions around organs • Most concentrated form of enegy

19. Organic Compounds:All organic compounds contain Carbon. • Protein: the working molecule • 50 or more Amino Acids make a protein • Types of Proteins • Muscle • Enzymes: Control chemical reactions and can be re-used like a key in a lock • Hair Protein

20. Proteins • Animal products, eggs, milk • Amino acid polymers • legumes, nuts, and cereals are low in one or more essential amino acids

21. Protein Metabolism • Proteins - bulk of cell structures; broken down into amino acids for enzymes, membranes • Cells use ATP to actively transport amino acids (8 of the 20 are not made by cells - essential amino acids)

22. General Metabolic Function • Albumin - most abundant protein; holds fluids in bloodstream • insufficient albumin causes fluid to go from blood to tissues (edema) • Synthesize amino acids and detoxify ammonia

23. Protein Metabolism • Amino acids make ATP when protein is in excess or no fats or carbs • amine groups are removed as ammonia which is toxic so it combines w/ CO2 to form urea

24. Central Role of Liver • Manufactures bile, detoxifies drugs and alcohol, degrades hormones, makes substances vital to body, metabolism • This process uses many enzymes: Speed up chemical reactions and reduce activation energy. • Most enzymes are Proteins some are RNA • We have more liver tissue than needed, so if damaged, it regenerates rapidly and easily

25. General Metabolic Functions • Liver maintains blood glucose levels • After high carb meal, glucose is removed from blood and converted to glycogen (glycogenesis) and stored in liver

26. General Metabolic Functions • As body cells remove glucose from blood, liver breaks down stored glycogen (glycogenolysis) • gluconeogenesis - make glucose from fat and protein

27. Organic Compounds:All organic compounds contain Carbon. • Nucleic Acids: pg. 37 DNA and RNA • Made of nucleotides: Sugar, Phosphate, and X • ATP: energy cells run on. DNA

28. What is a calorie? • Energy value measured in kilocalories (kcal) or Calories (C

29. Vitamins: the last of the Organics • Organic nutrients, small amounts • No one food contains all required vitamins, need balanced diet • Most function as coenzymes: act w/ enzymes for task

30. Minerals • Requires adequate supplies of 7: Ca, P, K, S, Na, Cl, and Mg; trace amounts of others • Fats/sugars have none, cereals and grains poor sources • In veggies, legumes, milk, meats

31. Metabolism: All chemical reactions necessary to maintain life • Catabolism- substances broken down, energy released and captured to make ATP • Anabolism - larger molecules built from smaller ones

32. Metabolism • Carbohydrates (glucose) - broken down to make ATP • Fats - build cell membranes, myelin sheaths, insulate, ATP • Proteins - structural materials hoarded by body cells

33. What are the two forms of cell transport? • Active Transport: uses energy (ATP) to move molecules against the concentration gradient or to move large things. • Passive Transport: uses NO energy to move molecules with the concentration gradient.

34. What types of Passive transport does the body use? • Diffusion: When molecules move from high to low or with the concentration gradient. • Perfume, food coloring, etc. all do this. • Osmosis: a specialized form of diffusion which moves water from high to low across the plasma membrane.

35. What types of Passive transport does the body use? • Facilitated Diffusion: Uses carrier proteins to move substances without energy with the concentration gradient. • Filtration: water and solutes are forced through a plasma membrane. Happens in the Kidneys.

36. What types of Active transport do you use? • Solute Pumping: Require protein carriers and energy to move sugars, Amino Acids, and ions against the concentration gradient. (Sodium Potassium pump used in Nerve cells)

37. More Active Transport… • Bulk Transport: Substances too big to pass through the plasma membrane. • Exocytosis: Large things exit the cells • Endocytosis: Large things enter the cell • Phagocytosis: Cells that eat- white blood cell • Pinocytosis: Cells drink- intestine and kidneys

38. Chromosomes: Tightly wound DNA. Resemble an X because two chromatids are held together.- Supercoiled. Centromere holds the chromosomes (Two sister Chromatids) together. Chromatid: A single tightly wound strand of DNA. DNA in all of its fine forms: DNA

39. Homologous Chromosomes

40. And last but not least… • DNA is your genetic information. In the shape of a double helix. The nucleotide pairs are: (Hydrogen bonds) • Adenine= Thymine • Cytosine:. Guanine • DNA is broken into segments called genes which code for proteins. • Genes give you your physical characteristics.

41. Is DNA the final say? • Epigenetics may play a role. Epigenetic Effect On DNA Epigenetic Movie

42. Before Eukaryotic Cells Divide… • Its chromosomes are replicated. • Happens through the process of DNA Replication. DNA Replication DNA needs enzymes (protein) to copy or replicate itself. • Double helix unwinds using DNA Helicase. • DNA Helicase breaks the hydrogen bonds. • Where the DNA breaks apart is called the replication fork. DNA polymerase (another enzyme) adds nucleotides at this point.

43. How many Chromosomes do humans have? • Each somatic cell or body cell has two copies of 23 chromosomes. • One copy of the chromosomes (sex cells or gametes) have 23 chromosomes and are called haploid or n = 23. • Two copies of the chromosomes (somatic cells) have 2n = 46.

44. There are two types of Chromosomes. • Autosomal Chromosomes: or autosomes are not sex chromosomes. • Sex Chromosomes: determine the sex of the individual. The male of the species determines the sex of the offspring. Women only have one X chromosome. Males have an X or a Y. • XX is a girl • XY is a boy

45. Karyotypes: Pictures of your DNA. • Why do we take pictures? To find mistakes

46. The 5 stages of the Cell Cycle 6-2 • G1: Cell Growth and Metabolism • S: DNA is copied • G2: Cell prepares for division. • Mitosis: Nucleus divides, cell parts separate. • Cytokinesis: Cytoplasm divides

48. When control of the Cell cycle is lost: Cancer is the outcome. • Cancer: uncontrolled cell division or death. • Read pg 66: Common Disorders Hit the Cancer Biology Documentary Link

49. Mitosis TheBasicSteps:6:3 • Prophase: DNA forms chromosomes. Nuclear envelope disappears. In Animals spindle fibers form. • Metaphase: Chromosomes move to the center of the cell- pulled by spindle fibers. • Anaphase: Chromosomes are separated into chromatids. Spindles shorten pulling chromatids to opposite ends of the cell. • Telophase: Nucleus reforms. Chromatids turn back into Chromatin. Spindles disappear. The Jazzy Version of Mitosis