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DAVID RICARDO

DAVID RICARDO. 1772-1823. Surse: WWW. Rostow, Theorists of Economic Growth from David Hume to the Present. With a Perspective on the Next Century , New York, Oxford, Oxford University Press, 1990

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DAVID RICARDO

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  1. DAVID RICARDO 1772-1823

  2. Surse: • WWW. Rostow, Theorists of Economic Growth from David Hume to the Present. With a Perspective on the Next Century, New York, Oxford, Oxford University Press, 1990 • David Ricardo, On Principles of Political Economy and Taxation, 1817 (third edition 1821), Batoche Books, Kitchnener, Ontario, Canada, 2001 • Campbell R. McConnell, Brue Stanley, Economics. Principles, Problems and Policies, thirteenth edition, McGraw-Hill, New York, 1996 • Samuelson P, Nordhaus W, Economics,fourteenth edition, McGraw-Hill, 1992 • Manoilescu M, Forţele naţionale productive şi comerţul exterior. Teoria protecţionismului şi a schimbului internaţional, Ed. Ştiinţifică şi Enciclopedică, Bucureşti, 1986

  3. Componente de bază ale economiei • Componentele forţelor de producţie: munca, utilajul, capitalul • Componentele sociale ale producţiei: proprietarul de pământ, proprietarul capitalului, muncitorul • Esenţa economiei devine DISTRIBUŢIA producţiei-veniturilor prin rentă, profit, salariu. • Aceasta depinde de: fertilitatea solului, acumularea capitalului, populaţie, aptitudini, ingeniozitate, utilajul din agricultură(Rostow, Theorists of Economic Growth from David Hume to the Present with a Perspective on the Next Century, Oxford Univ. Press, 1990, 77)

  4. Componente de bază ale economiei • “«The produce of the earth—all that is derived from its surface by the united application of labour, machinery, and capital, is divided among three classes of the community; namely, the proprietor of the land, the owner of the stock or capital necessary for its cultivation, and the labourers by whose industry it is cultivated. • But in different stages of society, the proportions of the whole produce of the earth which will be allotted to each of these classes, under the names of rent, profit, and wages, will be essentially different; depending mainly on the actual fertility of the soil, on the accumulation of capital and population, and on the skill, ingenuity, and instruments employed in agriculture. • To determine the laws which regulate this distribution, is the principal problem in Political Economy: much as the science has been improved by the writings of Turgot, Stuart, Smith, Say, Sismondi, and others, they afford very little satisfactory information respecting the natural course of rent, profit, and wages.»” (Rostow, 77)

  5. Legea diminuării veniturilor şi rolul agriculturii. Populaţia • Ricardo subliniază funcţia agriculturii în dezvoltarea economică. Legea diminuării veniturilor pe măsura creşterii investiţiilor “The operation of diminishing returns in a long-settled and developed country can only be held off by improved agricultural technology or increased agricultural imports at prices cheaper than the cost of growing grain at home.” / necesitatea liberului schimb [prin avantaj comparativ]

  6. Legea diminuării veniturilor. Ciclul economisire-investiţii • Legea diminuării veniturilor este esenţială în mecanismul economic şi ea îşi are punctul de plecare în agricultură: • “Ricardo assumed that all saving was invested. Saving-investment, in turn was assumed to depend on two factors. First, profits; i.e., “net income” above the allocation of resources necessary to maintain labor at its subsistence level. Second, on the impulse to save that Ricardo assumed would vary with the expected rate of profit. Low profits combined with the inescapable risks of investment would induce the capitalist or landowner to expand his consumption rather than increase his savings. Diminishing returns in agriculture decree that ultimately profits will decline … (Rostow: 81)

  7. Legea diminuării veniturilor-profiturilor (2) • “The natural tendency of profits then is to fall; for in the progress of society and wealth, the additional quantity of food required is obtained by the sacrifice of more and more labour; this gravitation as it were of profits is happily checked at repeated intervals by the improvements in machinery, connected with the production of necessaries, as well as by discoveries in the science of agriculture which enable us to relinquish a portion of labour before required, and therefore to lower the price of the prime necessary of the labourer.”(Ricardo: 78-79)

  8. CONCEPTE FUNDAMENTALE • În concepţia lui Ricardo, următoarele concepte sunt definitorii pentru economia politică: • VALOAREA, RENTA, PREŢUL, SALARIUL, CAPITALUL, PROFITUL, IMPOZITAREA, COMERŢUL INTERNAŢIONAL

  9. VALOAREA • Valoarea reprezintă echivalentul de schimb al unui produs în alt produs şi este dată de cantitatea de muncă încorporată. “The value of a commodity, or the quantity of any other commodity for which it will exchange, depends on the relative quantity of labour which is necessary for its production, and not on the greater or less compensation which is paid for that labour.“(Ricardo, Principles of Political Economy and Taxation, Batoche Books, Ontario, (1817) 2001, 8)

  10. Valoarea: de schimb şi socială • “It has been observed by Adam Smith, that 'the word Value has two different meanings, and sometimes expresses the utility of some particular object, and sometimes the power of purchasing other goods which the possession of that object conveys. The one may be called value in use; the other value in exchange. The things,' he continues, 'which have the greatest value in use, have frequently little or no value in exchange; and, on the contrary, those which have the greatest value in exchange, have little or no value in use; Water and air are abundantly useful; they are indeed indispensable to existence, yet, under ordinary circumstances, nothing can be obtained in exchange for them. Gold, on the contrary, though of little use compared with air or water, will exchange for a great quantity of other goods.”

  11. Valoarea: conceptul de utilitate • Utility then is not the measure of exchangeable value, although it is absolutely essential to it. If a commodity were in no way useful, — in other words, if it could in no way contribute to our gratification, — it would be destitute of exchangeable value, however scarce it might be, or whatever quantity of labour might be necessary to procure it. • Possessing utility, commodities derive their exchangeable value from two sources: from their scarcity, and from the quantity of labour required to obtain them.”(Ricardo: 8) •  Înseamnă că utilitatea se referă la valoarea socială-de folosinţă. • Foarte curios cum a evoluat în literatura neoliberală contemporană: „In a word, utility denotes satisfaction. More precisely, it refers to the subjective pleasure or usefulness that a person derives from consuming a good or service.” (Samuelson, Economics, 1992, p.83)

  12. PROFITUL DEF: ... profits; i.e., “net income” above the allocation of resources necessary to maintain labor at its subsistence level(Rostow: 81) Profitul este funcţie a salariului şi a rentei: “... in all countries, and all times profits depend on the quantity of labour requisite to provide necessaries for the labourers, on that land or with that capital which yields no rent.”(ibid)

  13. Legea urmăririi naturale a creşterii profitului • “Without a motive there could be no accumulation, and consequently such a state of prices never could take place. The farmer and manufacturer can no more live without profit, than the labourer without wages. Their motive for accumulation will diminish with every diminution of profit, and will cease altogether when their profits are so low as not to afford them an adequate compensation for their trouble, and the risk which they must necessarily encounter in employing their capital productively.”(Ricardo: 80)

  14. SALARIUL • Salariul este preţul muncii: “Labour, like all other things which are purchased and sold, and which may be increased or diminished in quantity, has its natural and its market price.”(Ricardo, 58) • Salariul depinde de: • “1st. The supply and demand of labourers. • 2dly. The price of the commodities on which the wages of labour are expended.”(Ricardo, 61)

  15. Teoria salariului natural Avem două tipuri de salariu: “salariul natural” şi “salariul negociat” (sau “de piaţă”) – market wage DEF salariul natural: • “…the natural price of labour, estimated even in food and necessaries, . . . varies at different times in the same country, and very materially differs in different countries. It essentially depends on the habits and customs of the people.” (Rostow: 80)

  16. Salariul de piaţă • “The market price of labour is the price which is really paid for it, from the natural operation of the proportion of the supply and demand; labour is dear when it is scarce, and cheap when it is plentiful. However much the market price of labour may deviate from its natural price, it has, like commodities, a tendency to conform to it.”

  17. Salariul şi populaţia. Dezvoltarea • Avem dezvoltare atunci când salariul de piaţă este peste salariul natural. • “… the rate of population increase is a function of the difference between the market and natural rate of wages; that a market rate above the natural rate discourages investment, reduces thereby the demand for labor, and thus tends to bring the market wage rate back to the natural wage rate.”(Rostow: 79)

  18. Salariul şi dezvoltarea (2) • “Notwithstanding the tendency of wages to conform to their natural rate, their market rate may, in an improving society, for an indefinite period, be constantly above it; … and thus, if the increase of capital be gradual and constant, the demand for labour may give a continued stimulus to an increase of people.”(Ricardo, 59)

  19. RENTA • “Rent is that portion of the produce of the earth, which is paid to the landlord for the use of the original and indestructible powers of the soil. [este parte a profitului care, dacă este impozitată, scade gradul de cultivare al pământului pentru că afectează profitul – cf. p.121 – cap. 10 „Taxes on Rent”] It is often, however, confounded with the interest and profit of capital, and, in popular language, the term is applied to whatever is annually paid by a farmer to his landlord.” (Ricardo: 39) • “... rent being not a creation, but merely a transfer of wealth” (Ricardo: 139)

  20. IMPOZITELE • Impozitul este o funcţie esenţială a guvernării, este suportul fiscal al administraţiei. • Principiile impozitării Ricardo le preia de la Adam Smith, după cum chiar el mărturiseşte: • „ ... according to Adam Smith, all taxes should conform [to the] four maxims … as follows: • 1. «The subjects of every state ought to contribute towards the support of the government, as nearly as possible in proportion to their respective abilities. • 2. The tax which each individual is bound to pay ought to be certain and not – p.128 arbitrary. • 3. 'Every tax ought to be levied at the time, or in the manner in which it is most likely to be convenient for the contributor to pay it. • 4. 'Every tax ought to be so contrived as both to take out and to keep out of the pockets of the people as little as possible, over and above what it brings into the public treasury of the State.'»

  21. Impozitarea (2) • Acest ultim aspect se referă la evitarea situaţiei în care „there is a large difference between the revenue to the government (net of administration expenses) and the total outlay by the taxpayer”. [Ian T. Lambert, “Some modern Principles of Taxation – Adam Smith Revisited” • RISCUL IMPOZITĂRII NEPRODUCTIVE – GUVERNAREA SLABĂ: • “If the consumption of the government, when increased by the levy of additional taxes, be met either by an increased production, or by a diminished consumption on the part of the people, the taxes will fall upon revenue, and the national capital will remain unimpaired; but if there be no increased production or diminished unproductive consumption on the part of the people, the taxes will necessarily fall on capital, that is to say, they will impair the fund allotted to productive consumption.” (Ricardo: 104)

  22. Valoare şi Bogăţie (bogăţia naţiunilor) • Problema: “By constantly increasing the facility of production, we constantly diminish the value of some of the commodities before produced, though by the same means we not only add to the national riches, but also to the power of future production. Many of the errors in political economy have arisen from errors on this subject, from considering an increase of riches, and an increase of value, as meaning the same thing, and from unfounded notions as to what constituted a standard measure of value.”(Ricardo, 199) • Bogăţia: “...for wealth always depends on the quantity of commodities produced, without any regard to the facility with which the instruments employed in production may have been procured.” (Ricardo, 202) “'necessaries, conveniences, and amusements/ in one state of society” (idem, 198)

  23. Valoarea şi Bogăţia. Ţări bogate, ţări sărace • “It may be said, then, of two countries possessing precisely the same quantity of all the necessaries and comforts of life, that they are equally rich, but the value of their respective riches would depend on the comparative facility or difficulty with which they were produced.” (Ricardo, 201)

  24. COMERŢUL INTERNAŢIONAL – teoria avantajului comparativ • Premisa: schimbul este mijlocul prin care toate ţările pot avea beneficii atât timp cât prin intermediul acestuia, îşi echilibrează costurile. Cea mai importantă componentă a costurilor este cantitatea de muncă. • Schimbul internaţional este avantajos în măsura în care ţările participante îşi optimizează cantităţile de muncă.

  25. Teoria avantajului comparativ - exemplu • “England may be so circumstanced, that to produce the cloth may require the labour of 100 men for one year; and if she attempted to make the wine, it might require the labour of 120 men for the same time. England would therefore find it her interest to import wine, and to purchase it by the exportation of cloth. • To produce the wine in Portugal, might require only the labour of 80 men for one year, and to produce the cloth in the same country, might require the labour of 90 men for the same time. It would therefore be advantageous for her to export wine in exchange for cloth. This exchange might even take place, notwithstanding that the commodity imported by Portugal could be produced there with less labour than in England.”

  26. Teoria avantajului comparativ 2 • “Of these two countries, if one had the advantage in the manufacture of goods of one quality, and the other in the manufacture of goods of another quality, there would be no decided influx of the precious metals into either; but if the advantage very heavily preponderated in favour of either, that effect would be inevitable.” (Ricardo, 97)

  27. Teoria avantajului comparativ (concepția neoliberală) • “Specialization and trade increase the productivity of a nation’s resources and allow for larger total output than otherwise”. (Campbell, 103) • A nation has a comparative advantage in some product when it can produce that product at a lower domestic opportunity cost than can a potential trading partner.” (Campbell, 105) • “The amount of other products which must be foregone or sacrificed to obtain some amount of a specific product is called the opportunity cost of that good.” (Campbell, 26)

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