Values, Attitudes, and Work Behaviour

1. Chapter 4 Values, Attitudes, and Work Behaviour

2. What are values? Defn: A broad tendency to prefer certain states of affairs over others. Preference => good / bad (motivational) Broad tendency => general. Do not accurately predict behaviour in specific situations Categories: religious, political, social, intellectual, economic Learned through reinforcement (parents, peers, institutions)

3. Occupational differences in values Members of different occupational groups tend to espouse different values Sociologist, engineer, salesperson,� Relation to occupational stereotypes Value differences and Conflict (eg., doctors / professors vs. administrators) Person-organization �fit�

4. Values across cultures Challenges in forging business links across cultures: cross-cultural differences �16 to 40 percent of managers who receive foreign assignments terminate them early because they perform poorly or do not adjust to the culture� Cross-cultural sensitivity

5. Values across cultures Work Centrality: work as a central life-interest Japan-------Belgium/US-------England Would you continue working if you won the lottery? Work hours and vacation time

6. Values across cultures The case of Japan Late hours and job-related socializing (mandatory drinks with the boss / customers�) Marriage unattractive to 52% of women and 40% of men (Gov�t report) � �a burden�, �limiting their freedom� Plummeting birth rates, shrinking workforce, increasing health and retirement costs => �lifestyle structural reform�

7. Values across cultures Hofstede�s study: 116,000 IBM employees, 40 different countries Basic dimensions along which work-related values differ: 1. Power Distance � The extent to which society members accept an unequal distribution of power Small power distance: inequality minimized, superiors accessible, power diff downplayed (Denmark, NZ, Austria) Large power distance: inequality is natural, superiors inaccessible, power differences highlighted (Philippines, Venezuela, Mexico) Related to individualism

8. Values across cultures Hofstede�s study: 2. Uncertainty avoidance: The extent to which people are comfortable with uncertain and ambiguous situations Strong uncertainty avoidance: stress rules and regulations, hard work, conformity, security (Japan, Greece, Portugal) Weak uncertainty avoidance: less concerned with rules, conformity, security, hard work. Value risk-taking (Singapore, Denmark, Sweden).

9. Values across cultures Hofstede�s study: 3. Masculinity/femininity: Differentiation between gender roles Masculine cultures: clear differentiation of gender roles, support dominance of men, stress economic performance (Japan, Austria, Mexico, Venezuela) Feminine cultures: Fluid gender roles, sexual equality, quality-of-life (Scandinavian countries) 4. Individualism/Collectivism: Individualistic = stress independence, indiv initiative, privacy (US, Australia, UK, Canada) Collectivist = favour interdependence, loyalty to family/clan (Venezuela, Colombia, Pakistan)

10. Values across cultures Hofstede and Bond: Long-term/short-term orientation: Long-term: stress persistence, perseverance, thrift, close attention to status differences (China, HK, Taiwan, Japan, South Korea) Short-term: stress personal stability and steadiness, face-saving, social niceties (US, Canada, UK, Zimbabwe, Nigeria)

11. Values across cultures A cross-cultural �success�:

12. Implications of Cultural Variation Exporting OB theories / practices: May not translate well in other societies Same questions / principles (effective leadership, efficiency, decision-making), different answers / applications based on cultural context Eg., power distance and participation; individualism/collectivism and reward structures

13. Values across cultures Implications of Cultural Variation Importing OB theories / practices: Japanese management: TQM, quality circles, just-in-time production

14. Implications of Cultural Variation Importing OB theories / practices: Japanese management: TQM, quality circles, just-in-time production (JIT) Problems stemming from basic value differences (workload, employee security, collectivism) vulnerability to supplier problems time-sensitive problems (weather, labour unions, municipal problems � road repair, electricity,�)

15. Implications of Cultural Variation Appreciating global cultures: Understanding needs and tastes of customers or clients around the world Disney in France: - EuroDisneyland (1992) Expected 500,000; got much fewer Cultural issues: wine, food, prices Commentators: �Cultural Chernobyl�

16. Implications of Cultural Variation Developing Global employees: Selection, training and development of employees to better appreciate differences in cultural values and implications Gillette Hiring local managers Finding key talent among foreign students Moving managers to posts in other countries Rewarding international experience with international responsibilities Developing international management trainees Samsung: cultural values immersion!

17. Attitudes Defn: Fairly stable evaluative tendency to respond consistently to a specific object, situation, person or category of persons. Fairly stable (though open to change) Evaluation (like/dislike) Tendency to respond Are a function of what we think and feel Belief + Value => Attitude ? Behaviour

18. Changing Attitudes Getting others to develop favourable attitudes towards us, or to embrace an attitude we hold Management interest in changing attitudes towards Ethical business practices Anticipated changes (new tech, structures) Safety practices / equipment

19. Changing Attitudes Persuasion Modification of values = emotionally oriented (eg., MADD ad) Modification of beliefs = rationally oriented Rational / emotional ? Traditional approach: change values/beliefs ? change attitudes ? change behaviour Problem: Audience is unable to see how new belief / value will be applicable to on-the-job behaviour (eg., cross-cultural comm)

20. Changing Attitudes Cognitive Dissonance: Tension experienced when certain cognitions (thoughts/knowledge about one�s own beliefs/values/attitudes/behaviour) are contradictory or inconsistent Engaging in behaviour not supported by our attitudes can lead us to change attitudes so as to reduce tension produced by inconsistency Changing behaviour first might lead to realignment of attitudes

21. Changing Attitudes New approach: Teach new behaviours to apply on the job to correspond to desired attitude change. If behaviours are successful, attitudes will change correspondingly Modeling (videotapes) + Roleplaying of correct behaviours (practice) + Social reinforcement (praise) ? Behaviour change ? Attitude change

22. Job Satisfaction Defn: Collection of attitudes people have about their jobs Facet Satisfaction (tasks, compensation, career ops) Overall Satisfaction (average or total of attributes held towards various facets) JDI (Job descriptive index), MSQ (Minnesota Satisfaction questionnaire)

23. What determines job satisfaction? Discrepancy theory: Job satisfaction stems from discrepancy between job outcomes wanted and outcomes perceived to be obtained Perceptions of the nature of the job (eg., where is most time spent?) What is valued / wanted by the individual Employees who have more job-related desires met will report more overall job satisfaction

24. What determines job satisfaction? Fairness: 1. Distributive fairness: Fairness that occurs when people receive what they think they deserve from their jobs Individuals want what�s fair Equity theory: job satisfaction stems from comparison of inputs invested and outcomes one receives, in comparison with those of another person / group Outcome/input ratio: my o/i = other�s o/i �short end of the stick� => dissatisfaction Equity and individualism

25. What determines job satisfaction? Fairness: 2. Procedural Fairness: When the process used to determine work outcomes is seen as reasonable Relevant to: performance evaluations, pay raises, promotions, layoffs, work assignments Adequate reasons for decision; follow consistent procedures; use accurate information without bias, allow two-way communication, welcome appeals Dissatisfaction maximized when people believe they would have obtained better outcomes if the decision-maker used other methods that should have been implemented.

26. What determines job satisfaction? Disposition: Connected to personality: predisposition to be more or less satisfied despite changes in discrepancy or fairness Extraversion + conscientiousness = more satisfied High neuroticism = less satisfied High self-esteem and internal locus of control = more satisfied Optimism + Proactivity = more satisfied

27. What determines job satisfaction? Mood and Emotion: Emotion: intense, short-lived feelings, caused by particular events; Mood: less intense, longer-lived and more diffuse feelings. Affective Events Theory: jobs consist of events/ happenings which affect emotions / moods based on perception Emotional Contagion: spread of emotions/moods Emotional Regulation: requirement to conform to �display rules� in job behaviour. Pros and cons.

28. What determines job satisfaction? Key contributors: Mentally challenging work Adequate compensation Career opportunities People

29. Job Satisfaction and consequences Absence from work Weak connection to job satisfaction Unavoidable absences Off-the-job satisfaction Attendance control Peer-behaviour and �absence culture�

30. Job Satisfaction and consequences Turnover: resignation from organization Moderately strong connection with job satisfaction, yet other factors� Shocks Commitment to overall values of organization Involvement in community Weak job market

31. Job Satisfaction and consequences Performance Many other factors besides job satisfaction Which is cause and which is effect? Organizational Citizenship Behaviours (OCBs) Voluntary, informal behaviour contributing to org effectiveness Spontaneous; contributes to organizational effectiveness; unlikely to be rewarded Helping behaviour, conscientiousness, �good sport�, courtesy, cooperation

32. Job Satisfaction and consequences Customer Satisfaction and Profit Do happy employees mean happy customers and more profit? Employee satisfaction IS a reasonable criterion for judging effectiveness of mgrs Reduced absenteesim and turnover; OCBs

33. Organizational Commitment Attitude that reflects the strength of linkage between an employee and an organization 1. Affective Commitment: identification and involvement with an organization (�want to�) 2. Continuance commitment: costs incurred in leaving organization (�have to�) 3. Normative Commitment: ideology or feeling of obligation (�should�)

34. Organizational Commitment Key contributors: Affective commitment: Interesting, satisfying work Mistake = assigning unchallenging jobs Role clarity and expectations Continuance commitment: Personal sacrifice, or lacking alternatives �side bets�: pension funds, rapid promotion Increases with time Normative commitment Obligation Socialization of loyalty

35. Organizational Commitment Consequences: Reduce turnover Affective commitment positively related to performance, but Continuance commitment is negatively related! (burnout, etc.) Downside: work-family conflicts, unethical behaviour, can affect innovation (resistance)

36. Organizational Commitment Changes in Workplace Demographics, innovation, competition; Layoffs, downsizing, outsourcing, restructuring, reengineering = loss of commitment Changes in nature of commitment Changes in focus of commitment Multiplicity of employer-employee relationships