Language policy

1. Languagepolicy AnIntroduction

2. Language management • Formulationandproclamationof a explicit plan orpolicyaboutlanguage use

3. Languagepolicyandplanning • Languagepolicy – expressiionofideologicalorientationsandviews • Languageplanning – proposals for theactualimplementationof a languagepolicy; a deliberatelanguagechange

4. Languageideology • A speechcommunity’sbeliefs on whatvalue to apply to eachofthelanguagevarietiesthat make upitsrepertoire

5. Stagesinlanguageplanning (haugen 1966) • 1. Selection • 2. Codification (spelling, grammar, vocabulary) • 3. Implementation (newspapers, books, textbooks, pamphlets) • 4. Elaboration (terminologyandstylistic development)

6. How do yourecognizelanguagepolicy? • Theeasiest to recognize – policiesthatexistintheformofclear-cutstatementsinofficialdocuments • Theymay take theformof • -A clausein a nationalconstitution • A languagelaw • A cabnetdocument • Administrativeregulation

7. Constitutionalprovisions • About 125 oftheworld’sconstitutionsexpress some languagepolicy; cc. 100 name one or more officiallanguageswithspecialprivilegesof use; nearlyhal (78) name a single officiallanguage • In 32 ofthese 78 casesthereis a clauseprotectingotherminority, nationalorindigenouslanguages • Manyconstitutions – no mentionoflanguage, apartfrom some human rightsclausessayingthatpersonsarrestedortried are entitled to interpreters, orthatthereshallbe no discrimination on thebasisof a list ofcharacteristicsincludinglanguage

8. Major languagepolicyfactors • Thesociolinguisticsituation • The nature ofpoliticalorganization

9. Correctinglanguageusage • Governments take on thetaskofmanagingbadlanguage: inthe USA, obscenityisconstitutionallyleft to stateorlocalgovernment, but thefederalgovernmenthas a lawdealingwithanyobscenitythatcrossesstatelines • Blasphemy – a crimein some jurisdictions • Managingandmitigatingracistlanguage • Controlling personal names • Stampingoutsexistlanguage

10. Linguisticpurism • Purismfavorsnativesourcesandtries to closeoffnon-nativesources; closelyconnectedwithnationalfeeling

11. Criteria for defininglanguage as bad • A wide rangeofmotivations: moral orreligiousrejectionofviolenceandovertsexualbehaviour, a religiousconcern for conformityandagainstblasphemy; a liberal objection to racismandsexism; a conservativeobjection to innovation: anethnocentricfearofforeignisms; a state- supportedmovement for nationalidentity

12. Languagecultivation • Standard language – „a codifiedformoflanguage, acceptedbyandserving as a model to, a largerspeechcommunity” • Anofficiallanguagehasgainedits status bytheformalrecognitionof a government • ‘national’ language – language most widelyusedin a territory, oremotional, withanimplicationofservingasnationalsymbol

13. Standard languages • Languagesused for sacredtexts: Latin, classicalArabic, Hebrew • National languageslikeFrenchor English – associatedwith a Great Tradition: a set ofbeliefsabouttherelationofthelanguage to thehistoryofthepeopleinorder to supporttheirsymbolic status; strongideologicalandpoliticalsupport • Standard language – ‘consensusofwhateducatedspeakersaccept as correct’ • A beliefincorrectness, thatthereis a correctanddesirableformofthelanguage, distinctfromnormalpractice • Thefirstcriticalneed for stadardization – a writing system; scripts – oftenassociatedwithsacredtexts

14. Languagepolicydomains • Family • School • Religion • Theworkplace • Nations andstates • Supra-nationalgroupings

15. family • Monolingual – bilingual (intermarriage, immigration) • Decisions to transmitornot to transmit a heritagelanguage (externalpressures)

16. school • Languageeducationpolicy • Thegapbetweenthelanguageofthe home andthelanguageofschool • Mothertongueeducation? • Systems that start teachinginthechildren’s home languageandintroducethe standard inthefirstfewyearsandmove to instructioninthe standard orofficiallanguage at variousstages • Some start teachinginthecolonialorofficiallanguagefromthefirstdayandassumethatpupilswillpickitupfromsimpleimmersion

17. school • A secondaspectoflanguagepolicy – teachingofotherlanguages • Most countrieshavelanguagepoliciesthatdefineforeignlanguageteaching

18. religion • Thedistributionof major typesofwritingsystemscorrelatescloselywiththedistributionoftheworld’s major religions • A religionoftenpreservesanearlierversionof a language for publicceremonies, particularlywhensacredtexts are maintainedinthe original • Religiousobservanceshelpmaintain a languageafterimmigration • Intertwiningofmissionaryactivitiesandcolonization

19. Theworkplace • Business firmsoftenestablishtheirownlanguagepolicies

20. Localgovernment • Localgovernmentsoftenresponsible for publiceducation • Choiceoflanguage for publicsigns

21. Nations andstates • Nationalism – importantfactorinlanguagepolicies

22. Supranationalorganizations • Tensionsbetweenpragmaticandsybbolicconsiderations • EU: 24 officiallanguages, 3 workinglanguages • Mothertongue + 2 • Rights ofminoritylanguages

23. Frenchlanguagepolicy • French – theunifyingand sole language for theareasunderFrenchrule • Academiefrancaise (1635) – thefirstanddefiningexampleoflanguageplanning • Increasing use ofFrenchinformaldomains – a need to developandcultivateit; purifyitofobscurearchaicregionalterms; thelanguageofcommonpeople – alsoproscribed; theresult: anaristocraticliterarylanguage, withhigh status andauthority

24. Frenchlanguagepolicy • In 1635 the Paris Parlementrecognizeditsresponsibility for theFrenchlanguageandbookswritteninFrench. Itwas „to giveexplicitrules to ourlanguageand to renderit pure, eloquent, andcapableoftreatingtheartsandsciences” • Thisscholarlygroup, supportedlaterbylegislation, was to developthemonolingualhegemonyoftheFrenchlanguage • TheAcademy’s role: to guardtheFrenchlanguageand to act as a patron ofthearts • ItwasoriginallyenvisagedthattheAcademywouldwork on 4 products: a dictionary, a grammar, a rhetoricand a poetics

25. Frenchlanguagepolicy • TheConstituentAssemblyin 1790 acceptedbilingualism, passingdecreessuppotingtranslationintolocallanguagesandsalaryincreases for bilingualteachers • In 1791 theJacobinstookpowerandcalled for the development of a centralizedstate; educationwas to have a central role, andequalitycouldonlybegrantedifeveryonespokethe same language • Education – one ofthe most importantdutiesofthestate • A commonlanguagewouldsupportcommunication on a nationallevel

26. Frenchlanguagepolicy • Standard French, thelanguageofthe elite, wasthechoice • Regionallanguagescame to beassociatedwithfeudalism • French – thenationalsymbol, otherlanguages – prohibited • In 1880’s the Third Republic put theJacobins’ policyintoeffectbymakingprimaryeducation free andcompulsory • LawToubon (1994) „ByvirtueoftheConstitution, Frenchisthelanguageofthe Republic, andtheFrenchlanguageisthefundamentalelement ofthecharacterandheritageof France”

27. legislation • TheedictsofVillers-Cotteret (1539) – onlyFrenchcouldbeusedincourts, inlegaldocumentsandinjudgements – Latin replacedby a nationallanguage • Decreesof 1794 convertedchurchschoolsintostateschoolsthatwererequired to use French, banningregionallanguages; notenoughteachers to carrythispolicyintoeffect • In 1881 theministerofeducationrepeatedthatFrench must beusedinallschools • In 1972 PresidentPompidousaidthat „thereis no place for regionallanguagesin France whichisdestinedto play a fundamental role in Europe”

28. Legislation • A lawpassedin 1975 establishedthatFrench must beusedincommerce, inpublicplaces, inthemediaandinpublicservice • 1994 LawToubon – madeFrenchcompulsoryinconsumeraffairs, employment, education, audiovisualcommunicationandcolloquiaandcongressesheldin France. Civil servantswererequired to use officialterminology • Anyoneemployedbythestate (civil servantsandteachers) had to followtheConstitutionand use French, includingalltermsapprovedbytheirMinistry’sterminologicalcommittee • 1973 Frankophonie

29. Legislation • Terminologicalcommitteesstrenghtened, coordinatedbycentralagencies • No othernationallanguagehasdevelopedsuch elaborate andwell-financed network ofgovernmentandsemi-governmentagencies • 1951 DeixonneLawpermittedtheteachingofBasque, Breton, CatalanandOccitan for up to 3 hrs a week as partof general education; Corsicanadded to the list in 1974 • Since 1994 BasqueandBretonbilingualschools; a rulingin 2002 annulledearlierdecisions to permitbilingualeducationinregionallanguages

30. Frenchcolonies • All levelsofadministration, publiclifeandeducation – inFrench • Civilizingmission: spreadingtheFrenchlanguageandculture, avoidingthe use oflanguagesof „primitivepeoples” • Frenchtaught as pure Parisian, no regionalvariationrecognized • LocalAfricanlanguagesrepressedexceptinreligioussettings

31. Frenchlanguagepolicy • Drivenby a desire to assertnationalunity, homogeneityandidentityinthemultilingulregionsunderdevelopingpoliticalcontrol • Themainthreats to thelanguage – internal: theregionalvarietiesthatencourageddiversityanddetractedfromcentralpower • Today: themainthreatis English – themaindrivingforce for theFrenchlanguagepolicy

32. Thespreadofenglish • English today – in a strongerpositionintheworldthananyotherlanguage, todayorinthe past • Alreadyin 1970’s English wasthelanguageofdiplomacy (95 outof 126 membersof UN receivedworkingdocumentsin English, thelanguageof 70% oftheworld’s mail, thefirstlanguageof cc. 300 millionpeople, thesecondlanguageofmany more, thelanguageofaircontrol

33. CausesofLANGUAGE spread • Colonization, • urbanization, • education, • religion, • politicalaffiliation

34. Conspiracytheory • „linguicism” – intentionaldestructionof a powerlesslanguageby a dominant one • Grantingoverrepresentation to one language at theexpenseofanother • Linguisticimperialism

35. English languagepolicy? • UK – unwrittenconstitution • The US Constitution – no mentionoflanguage • UK devolution – restoredthe status ofCelticlanguagesin Wales and Scotland • No cleartraditionofcentrallydirectedlanguagepolicy

36. English diffusionintheuk • Welsh – stillstrong for centuriesafterthe 1536 Actof Union had made English theonlylanguageoflawandgovernment; most of Wales – stillWelshspeakinginthe mid-18th c. • In 19th c. publicschoolsbegan to discouragethe use ofWelsh

37. Standard English: ReceivedPronunciation (RP) • From 19th c, educated at highlyselectivepublicschoolsinthesouthofEngland, the elite promoted standard English withitsownprestigeaccent: ReceivedPronunciation (RP) • Anyoneoutsidethis elite group – disadvantaged • No need for formalexplicitlanguage management

38. English inthecolonies • In most partsofthe British empire – thenumberof English-speakingsettlerswasrathersmall • Theresponsibilityofthecolonialpower – to educatetheindigenouspopulatioinorder to modernizethecountry • Elementaryeducation – inthelocalvernacular, withgradualtransitionthroughbilingual to monolingual English instructioninthe more selectivehigherlevels • Today: inhalf of 20 formercolonies English wasanofficiallanguageorwaslegallyrecognized

39. The global language system • Mutuallyunintelligiblelanguages – connectedbyplurilingualspeakers, formingorderedhierarchicalsystems • Most languages – peripheral, used for spokencommunicationonly; speakersofperipherallanguagestend to acquirethe same secondlanguage, whichbecomescentral to theirregion • Cc 100 languagesoccupy a centralpositioninthe global language system: usedby 95% oftheworld’spopulation: education, themedia, administration, law • Whenspeakersof a centrallanguagelearnanotherlanguage, itisoften on a higherhierarchicallevel

40. The global language system • Fromaneconomicviewpoint, choosing a standard languageisaninvestment, anditis more valuablethelongeritsurvivesandthe more people use it • Finalstagesoflanguagedeath – thegrowingshortageofspeakersis a cause for others to stop usingit; intherush to acquire a centrallanguage: themore speakersithas, the more peoplewant to learnit • This model explainsthe global shifttowards English; thepowerofattractionofcentral, super-centraland global languages

41. The global language system • Economic, technological, political, social, religiousandstructuralchanges – causes for thespreadof a language; they provide thecentripetalforcethatraisesthevalue, desirabilityandattractivenessof a language • Theopposite trend: centrifugalsymbolicforcesunderlyingefforts to establishormaintainethnicorlocalornationallanguages: resistance to English orotherdominantlanguages: reversingthelanguageshift

42. The global language system • 1) thespreadof English – not a directresultoflanguage management • 2) English as a global languageneeds to betakenintoaccountbyanynationstateinitslanguagepolicy

43. Doestheushave a languagepolicyorjust civil rights? • US – absenceofanexplicitlyorganizedandimplementedlanguagepolicy • Opposition to establishing a languageacademyoranyotheradministrativebodychargedwihitsimplementation • Fromitscolonialbeginning, the American linguisticpatternmarkedbydiversity • Colonization – linguisticallydiverse; Spanish (1513), English (1583. Newfoundland); Dutch 1623, French (1605), Dutch (1513), German 1683 Philadelphia) • 19th c. increaseinmigration; ‘meltingpot’: de-ethnizationandAmericanization

44. Doestheushave a languagepolicyorjust civil rights? • Non-English languages – most likely to bepreservedinthosegroupsthatweredeniedorresistedsocialmobility • ForcedintegrationandanglicizationofNativeAmericas • ChineseandJapaneseimmigrantswerekeptoutsidetheschoolsysten • World wars – xenophobia, nationalism; Anti-German sentiment • Bilingualismcame to beassociatedwithinferiorintelligence • By 1930’s US ideology– firmlymonolingual • Conflictingtensions: bilingualismv.monolingualism

45. Us practiceandbeliefs • Most privateandpublicbusiness – conductedinEnlish • Manyindividualsandcommunitiescontinue to use theirheritagelanguages

46. Us language management • Attacks on policiespermittingthe use ofotherlanguagesin US schools • Adoptionoftheimmigrationquotasinthe 1920’s, theflowofnon-English speakingimmigrantssloweddown • A handfulofruralschoolsremainedbilingual • 1960’s: growingimmigration – theissuebecameimportantagain • Education – outsidetheconstitutionalauthorityofthefederalgovernmentmeantthattherewas no consistentnationalideologyand no possibilityofdeveloping a uniformfederallanguagepolicy

47. Language as a civil right • US courtshavedefendedtherightsofspeakersoflanguagesotherthan English • Meyer v. Nebraska (1923) theSupreme Court ruledthatwhilethestatescouldrequire English as themediuminpublicschools, theycouldnot do this for privateschools • In 1973 theFederal Court for theUS EasternDistrictof Texas heldthattheabsenceof a bilingualeducationprogranviolatedthe 14th Anendment • In 1974 Portales v SernaCircuit Court ofAppealsheldthat Title VI gavechildrenwithlimited English-speakingabilitytheright to bilingualediuation

48. Civil rightsact (1964) • Provided a basis for thefederalgovernment to interveneinlanguage management • Pupilsdeclared to belinguisticalydisadvantaged

49. Bilingualeducationact (1968) • Providedfunding for educationalprogrammestaughtinlanguagesotherthan English • Expiredin 2002 • The original legislationproposed to teach English to childrenfromnon-English-speakingbackgrounds • A continuationofthe Civil Rights Act, providing a remedy for discriminationagainstpupilswhodidnotspeak English • Notintended to provide support for themaintenanceofthelanguagesofminoritygroups • Campaignsagainstbilingualeducation

50. Languagein civil rights • Ithasbecomeacceptedin US and Europe thatthereis a fundamentaland civil right for there to shouldbeno discriminationagainstanindividualbased on language • In its most rudimentaryformthis led to therequirementthat a personchargedwith a crimebetoldthedetailsofthechargein a language s/he understands • In its most elaborate form – provisionofgovernmentservicesinsuch a waythatthey are accessible to all