Chapter 8: Socioemotional Development in Early Childhood

1. Chapter 8:  Socioemotional Development in Early Childhood

2. During early childhood, children must discover who they are and: They discover that conscience must govern exploration and self-observation, self-guidance, self-punishment Disappointment turns to guilt that lowers self-esteem Their parents can encourage motor play and fantasy Guilt exists in later life if motor activity is considered bad, questions are seen only as nuisances, and play is stupid Erikson�s stage for early childhood: initiative vs. guilt Emotional and Personality Development Letting children have the freedom to initiate motor play and have their questions answered, as well as not have their fantasy or other types of play inhibited may develop a sense of initiative.Letting children have the freedom to initiate motor play and have their questions answered, as well as not have their fantasy or other types of play inhibited may develop a sense of initiative.

3. Self-understanding: substance and content of one�s self-conceptions, beginning with self-recognition In early childhood, self-conception is usually in physical and material terms As children age, there is increased Use of emotional language Learning about causes and consequences of feelings Ability to reflect on emotions Need to control and manage emotions to meet social standards By 18 mos kids recognize their reflection in mirrors.By 18 mos kids recognize their reflection in mirrors.

4. Self-conscious emotions are pride, guilt, shame, and embarrassment Require the child to be aware of themselves as distinct from others. Do not appear until the last half of the 2nd year of life. Become more common during the early childhood years. Girls may show more shame, pride, anxiety, depression, and self-criticism Between ages 2 and 4, children considerably increase the number of terms they use to describe emotions and learn about the causes and consequences of feelings. Between 4 and 5, they develop the ability to reflect on emotions and to understand that the same event can cause different emotions in different people. Girls are more at risk for internalizing disorders such as depression and anxiety. Emotion-coaching parents try to use kids� negative emotions as opportunities for teaching, and coach them in labeling and handling their feelings. Emotions-dismissing parents try to deny, ignore, or change their kids� negative emotions. Kids of emotion-coaching parents are better able to soothe themselves and have fewer problems. Being able to regulate emotions is associate with positive peer interactions.Girls are more at risk for internalizing disorders such as depression and anxiety. Emotion-coaching parents try to use kids� negative emotions as opportunities for teaching, and coach them in labeling and handling their feelings. Emotions-dismissing parents try to deny, ignore, or change their kids� negative emotions. Kids of emotion-coaching parents are better able to soothe themselves and have fewer problems. Being able to regulate emotions is associate with positive peer interactions.

5. Psychoanalytic view of morality: According to Freud, all children in the phallic stage lust for their same sex parent. In an attempt to resolve this conflict, boys identify with their fathers and try to please them, thus developing their male gender role and their strong superegos. Girls go through a similar experience and end up identifying with their mothers. Parents� standards internalized Self-punitive guilt and other emotions force child to conform to social standards Not backed by research Freud�s view of morality

6. Stages of Piaget�s moral development in children: At ages 4-7, they see justice and rules as unchangeable (heteronomous morality) Judge the rightness of behavior by the consequences, not the intention. Rules are handed down by authority. Immanent justice: if a rule is broken, punishment will be handed out immediately. Between ages 7 and 10 years, there is transition After 10 years of age: awareness that laws and rules are created by humans, judgment of behavior should be based on intentions and consequences (autonomous morality)

7. Views of moral theory Behavioral and social cognitive approach: Reinforcement, punishment, and imitation used to explain moral behavior by children Children repeat behavior that they are rewarded for. However, what children do in one situation is only weakly related to what they will do in another. The ability to resist temptation is closely tied to the development of self-control; patience and ability to delay gratification are learned Note the comprehensive 1928-30 study of thousands of children which showed that the completely honest child was virtually nonexistent, but so was the child who cheated in all situations (Harthshorne and May).Note the comprehensive 1928-30 study of thousands of children which showed that the completely honest child was virtually nonexistent, but so was the child who cheated in all situations (Harthshorne and May).

8. Gender Sex is a biological classification Gender identity is a sense of being male or female Most children have gender identity by age 3 Gender role: expectations of being masculine and feminine; how one acts, feels, or thinks

9. Biological influences on behavior Chromosomes: XY are males, XX are females Sex hormones influence physical development Some research suggests genetics help determine play patterns, levels of aggression, career goals, and attitudes about gender roles Evolutionary biologists: males and females faced different pressures in our evolutionary history. Behaviors that enhanced survival of the species were perpetuated by evolution. For example, males� need to pass on genes lead them to favor short-term mating patterns. Males competed to gain access to females, perpetuating tendencies for violence, competition and risk-taking. Natural selection favored females who devoted efforts to parenting and choosing mates who could provide resources. Genetic males born with a rare birth defect who were surgically assigned to be female � 14 were raised as females � 8 of the 14 declared themselves boys, but 5 were happy living as females. Pays little attention to individual and cultural differences.Genetic males born with a rare birth defect who were surgically assigned to be female � 14 were raised as females � 8 of the 14 declared themselves boys, but 5 were happy living as females. Pays little attention to individual and cultural differences.

10. Social role theory: gender differences are due to the influence of culture Psychoanalytic theory: gender role develops as child identifies with same-sex parent in resolution of the Oedipal/Electra Complex. Social Cognitive theory: gender roles learned through observation, imitation, rewards, punishments Ages 4 to 12 spend most free time exclusively in same-sex groups Three theories about origins of gender roles Social role theory � suggest that women have less power and status than men and they control fewer resources. Women showed more cooperative, less dominant profiles than men because they adapted to roles with less power and less status in society. Evidence against Psychoanalytic theory: child becomes masculine or feminine even in absence of same-sex parent and children become gender-typed before the Oedipal Complex occurs. Social Cognitive Theory is supported by the idea that children tend to be rewarded for gender-appropriate behavior. The more time preschool boys spent interacting with boys, the more their activity level, rough and tumble play, and sex-typed choice of toys increased and the less time they spent with adults. The more time preschool girls spent with gilrs, the more their activity level and aggression decreased and the more their girl-typed play activities and time spent with adults increased. Social role theory � suggest that women have less power and status than men and they control fewer resources. Women showed more cooperative, less dominant profiles than men because they adapted to roles with less power and less status in society. Evidence against Psychoanalytic theory: child becomes masculine or feminine even in absence of same-sex parent and children become gender-typed before the Oedipal Complex occurs. Social Cognitive Theory is supported by the idea that children tend to be rewarded for gender-appropriate behavior. The more time preschool boys spent interacting with boys, the more their activity level, rough and tumble play, and sex-typed choice of toys increased and the less time they spent with adults. The more time preschool girls spent with gilrs, the more their activity level and aggression decreased and the more their girl-typed play activities and time spent with adults increased.

12. Parents influence and encourage gender behaviors and roles affecting peer relations By age 3, children show a preference for same-sex playmates, and this preference increases from ages 4-12. After 5, boys tend to associate in large groups, girls prefer groups of two or three In same-sex play groups: Boys tend to play rough-and-tough and competitively, and show conflict, ego displays, risk taking, and dominance Girls tend to be collaborative and engage in reciprocity behaviors Peers often reject children who act in a manner that is characteristic of the other gender. However, research suggests that the pressure for boys to conform to traditional male gender roles is greater than the pressure for girls to conform to traditionally female roles.Peers often reject children who act in a manner that is characteristic of the other gender. However, research suggests that the pressure for boys to conform to traditional male gender roles is greater than the pressure for girls to conform to traditionally female roles.

15. Cognitive development theory: gender typing occurs after children achieve gender constancy (as Kohlberg developed this: gender development depends on cognition) Once they consistently conceive of themselves as male or female, children dramatically increase their gender-typical behavior. In this view, gender-typed behavior occurs only after gender constancy is achieved (about age 6 or 7). Gender schema theory: gender gradually develops as child perceives the schema of gender-appropriate or inappropriate behavior in their culture This view does not require gender constancy prior to gender-typing. Cognitive theories of gender development

17. Interviewed children aged 3 to 7 in 2000. Suggests that by age 3 or 4, kids have strong gender schemas. Additionally, the girls said they would be happy with the feminine occupations, and angry or disgusted with the masculine occupations. Boys said the same, but their reactions were more intense.Interviewed children aged 3 to 7 in 2000. Suggests that by age 3 or 4, kids have strong gender schemas. Additionally, the girls said they would be happy with the feminine occupations, and angry or disgusted with the masculine occupations. Boys said the same, but their reactions were more intense.

18. Parenting styles really affect development Interactions include punishment, child abuse, co-parenting, time and effort, and nurturing Four parenting styles (Baumrind, 1971) Authoritarian: highly controlling, little discussion (�My way, or else�) Authoritative: limits placed, but also warm, nurturing, encouraging independence within those limits (�Let�s talk about it�) Neglectful: uninvolved in child�s life Indulgent: involved, but with few demands or restraints Families

20. Authoritative parenting May be most effective type for variety of reasons It appears to transcend boundaries of ethnicity, SES, and family structure Asian parents emphasize preparing child for academic and other success Latino parents tend to encourage family identity and self-development African American parents tend to use physical punishment more than whites Corporal punishment was considered necessary for disciplining children � legal in all states Illegal in several countries including Finland, Denmark, Norway, Austria, Cyprus, Latvia, Croatia, Germany and Israel. Parenting

21. Some research shows use of corporal punishment is Associated with higher levels of immediate compliance and aggression in children Should be avoided in its intense forms Intense forms give child an out-of control model for handling stress. Does not each alternative behavior. Can escalate to abuse. Cross-culturally, U.S. and Canada among those most favoring corporal punishment Alternatives include use of time-outs, reasoning with child, positive reinforcement, loss of privileges Corporal Punishment

23. Child abuse or maltreatment refers to abuse and neglect Four main types of child maltreatment (can overlap): Physical abuse: physical injury Child neglect: physical/emotional/educational neglect or abandonment Sexual abuse: fondling, rape, incest, intercourse, sodomy, exploitation Emotional abuse: psychological abuse, verbal abuse, mental injury Child abuse is a diverse condition and is usually mild to moderate in severity. Stress may enhance likelihood of abuse. Child Abuse Sexual abuse is the most under-reported. Emotional abuse is almost always present when any other type of abuse occurs.Sexual abuse is the most under-reported. Emotional abuse is almost always present when any other type of abuse occurs.

24. Culture affects incidence of child abuse Examine family interactions to understand abuse 1/3 of people who were abused become abusers Developmental consequences of abuse: Poor emotional regulation Attachment problems Difficulty in school and peer relations Other psychological problems Child victims show increased violence in adult relationships The Cultural Context of Abuse

25. In co-parenting, parental cooperation and warmth are linked to prosocial behaviors in children Good parenting is key factor Sibling relationships have a strong effect 80+% of American children have 1+ siblings Birth order Parents have higher expectations for firstborn Only child: often achievement-oriented, displays desirable personality traits By itself, is not a good predictor of behavior Family Relationships

26. Consider age spacing and sex between children, heredity, temperament, and parenting styles for predicting behavior Children�s families more diverse today More mothers work outside home, more children in child care More children under 17 grow up in single-parent homes Both parents work outside home Divorced families Some research finds negative effects if mother works during child�s 1st year (however, this is a correlation). Many researchers find no negative effects of maternal employment on children�s development. The Changing Family in a Changing Society

28. Child from divorced family tends to show poorer adjustment, with greatest risk occurring in multiple divorces Deciding divorce: weighing emotional stress on children versus loss of resources The relationship between parents after divorce appears more negative for girls Custodial- and noncustodial-father families may have greater impact on the sons� lives Joint custody may be better for all The majority of children in divorced families do not have significant adjustment problems, and all this research is correlational. Children in Divorced Families The parents� ability to have a harmonious relationship and use authoritative parenting techniques may improve children�s ability to adjust. Socially mature and responsible children, with few emotional and behavioral problems and an easy temperament are better able to adjust.The parents� ability to have a harmonious relationship and use authoritative parenting techniques may improve children�s ability to adjust. Socially mature and responsible children, with few emotional and behavioral problems and an easy temperament are better able to adjust.

30. Peers assist a child by Filling unique role in the culture Providing information Giving feedback and evaluation Good peer relations necessary for social development Extensive peer interaction during childhood in play Piaget: play advances cognitive development; cognitive development constrains play Vygotsky: play is excellent for cognitive development Peer Relations

31. Parten identifies 6 types of play: solitary, unoccupied, onlooker, parallel, associative, and cooperative play Other types of play: Sensorimotor play (early infancy) Practice play (primarily in infancy) Pretense/symbolic play (9�30 months) Social play (peer interactions) Constructive play increases in preschool years Games reinforce rules and competition; effects of TV can be very harmful Functions of Play

33. Boys who watched the most aggressive television were the most likely to commit a violent crime, be aggressive in sports, threaten violence toward another boy, write slogans on walls, or break windows. � However, this is a correlational study. In any experiment in which preschool students were randomly assigned to watch violent Sat. morning cartoons on 11 different days, compared to a group that watched the cartoons with all of the violent scenes removed. The preschool children who saw the TV cartoon shows with violence kicked, choked, and pushed their playmates more than did the preschool children who watched nonviolent TV. Suggested that TV provides scripts for aggression. Positive TV can be associated with prosocial behavior, such as Sesame Street. TV is negatively related to children�s creativity.Boys who watched the most aggressive television were the most likely to commit a violent crime, be aggressive in sports, threaten violence toward another boy, write slogans on walls, or break windows. � However, this is a correlational study. In any experiment in which preschool students were randomly assigned to watch violent Sat. morning cartoons on 11 different days, compared to a group that watched the cartoons with all of the violent scenes removed. The preschool children who saw the TV cartoon shows with violence kicked, choked, and pushed their playmates more than did the preschool children who watched nonviolent TV. Suggested that TV provides scripts for aggression. Positive TV can be associated with prosocial behavior, such as Sesame Street. TV is negatively related to children�s creativity.