Writing across the school/university transition: the experience and

1. Writing across the school/university transition: the experience and strategies of UK students of English John Hodgson University of the West of England Ann Harris University of Huddersfield

2. Transition: secondary > university • Much more reading • Less frequent writing assignments • More challenging (course assessment) • “Writing is the only thing that matters on the course” (third year student)

3. Evidence from a focus group study of joint honours English students … commissioned by the English Subject Centre (this research on writing was not in the ESC project design)

4. A student epiphany • the moment when, early in the A level course, the teacher displays (on blackboard, whiteboard, flip chart or other technology) the assessment objectives for the course … • as stated by Ofqual (the UK examinations regulator), communicated by the assessment awarding bodies (examination boards) and enforced by Ofsted (the teacher inspection agency)

5. Academic literacies • Students’ academic literacies should be understood in relation to "the whole institutional and epistemological context”[Lea & Street 1998] • Academic literacies “vary depending on the particular context in which they occur”[Lea 2004]

6. Student academic writing • How do undergraduates approach lengthy high-stakes writing assignments whose demands differ significantly from what many call the “tick-box”, assessment-objective-led essays of their former A level studies?

7. The students • 24 students in 7 focus groups • Five universities (two pre-92, three post-92)

8. The students • Joint subjects: History (3), Philosophy (3), Politics (3), Music (2), Psychology (2), Cultural Studies (2), Criminology (1), Education (1), English Language (1), Film Studies (1), Information Systems (1), Italian (1), Journalism (1), Publishing (1), Sociology (1).

9. Rationale • Comparing essays written in different disciplines by the same student should highlight the ways students manage: • differing subject epistemologies • differing tutorial expectations

10. Method • Each student participating in a focus group was asked to supply a copy of an essay (preferably with tutors’ comments) in each of their two disciplines • The essays were analysed in the light of what the same student said about their experience of university study

11. Students’ schemas of HE English • the canon of literature ― it's like an overview of everything [Glenys, Post-92] • In English you can literarily focus on two texts. Obviously you should read all the other ones, but it does help to be very focused. [Felicity, Pre-92] • You can write what you believe about [the texts], and you’ve a fair chance of being right [Belinda, Pre-92]

12. Students’ schemas of HE English • [In English] I can have more free interpretations. [Jasmine, Pre-92] • They say that in English you can't be wrong if you can back it up but I find you actually can. I found that out a lot this year [Carla, Post-92] • English is not based on solid ground. [Yvonne, Pre-92]

13. Students’ schemas of HE English • English Language teachers are looking for different things from Literature lecturers. The poetry analysis in Language is linguistic and quite technical, whereas in Literature it’s more subjective. [Viv, Pre-92] • Language is …much more scientific… Grammar is Grammar, as opposed to theory. [Susan, Pre-92]

14. Viv • Pre-92 University • Third year • Joint Honours English Literature and English Language. She had taken both subjects at A-level

15. Viv • felt that Literature essays were ‘more daunting [than Language essays] because [response is] so subjective’ • In Language: ‘You would have the findings there rather than creating your own findings’

16. Viv • ‘Language teachers are looking for different things from Literature lecturers … poetry analysis within English Language is linguistic and quite technical, whereas poetry analysis in Literature is more subjective’

17. Viv: Compare the use of poetic form in two poems written by different poets • The form of a poem is a significant indicator of attitudes of society during the period in which the poem was written, and Romantic poetry was heavily influenced by the revolutionary changes in the late 18th century. In this essay, I will focus on how the poetic form of a poem enabled the Romantic poet to portray the revolution as a positive release from political tension and social malfunction.

18. Viv: Compare the use of poetic form in two poems written by different poets • Blank verse form was the Romantic poet’s subtle rebellion from structured poetic forms typical of classical poetry, such as rhyming couplets […] • The unlimited length of the blank verse form in Tintern Abbey enables a fully developed contemplation of many enriching qualities of nature that freed [Wordsworth] from his depression.

19. Viv: Compare the use of poetic form in two poems written by different poets • Wordsworth saw childhood as a liberated state in which one is unlimited by self-consciousness and is free to admit their genuine internal thoughts. Compared to the strict poetic forms that were typical of classical poetry, the comparative lack of structure of the blank verse form imitates the liberated speech of a child, whose thoughts and feelings are not restrained by social expectations, but pour out openly.

20. Viv: Compare the use of poetic form in two poems written by different poets

21. Viv: Compare the use of poetic form in two poems written by different poets • Within her limited knowledge, Viv has indeed (as the assessor comments) made "a strong attempt to link social/political concerns to poetic form” • But none of her assertions is referenced; they clearly relate not to any specific secondary reading • but to a more general schema of a direct relationship between poetic form and emotional liberation

22. Viv: Evaluate Lakoff’s Assumption that Women’s Language Expresses Powerlessness Lakoff (2004) studied the gender differences in style, semantics and syntax of language to conclude that women's speech reflects their subordinate social status in a male dominated society. She identifies several linguistic features which are more common in women’s speech than in men’s that supposedly express uncertainty and a lack of confidence. In this essay, I will discuss certain language features which Lakoff considers "women's language" and introduce other linguistic studies that challenge the assumption that women's language expresses powerlessness.

23. Viv’s confidence here has more authority. Her initial statement is referenced, and ― unlike the first paragraph of the Literature essay ― this introductory paragraph begins to make an argument that critiques Lakoff's proposition. Lakoff (2004) studied the gender differences in style, semantics and syntax of language to conclude that women's speech reflects their subordinate social status in a male dominated society. She identifies several linguistic features which are more common in women’s speech than in men’s that supposedly express uncertainty and a lack of confidence. In this essay, I will discuss certain language features which Lakoff considers "women's language" and introduce other linguistic studies that challenge the assumption that women's language expresses powerlessness.

24. Viv’s confidence here has more authority. Her initial statement is referenced, and ― unlike the first paragraph of the Literature essay ― this introductory paragraph begins to make an argument that critiques Lakoff's proposition. • This essay is written with the confidence that comes from Viv’s knowledge that her schema corresponds with that of the discipline and will be corroborated by her tutor. • Addressing Lakoff's view that "tag questions are used more often by women by men, and request reassurance from the listener", Viv cites other writers to develop an opposing argument:

25. Viv: Evaluate Lakoff’s Assumption that Women’s Language Expresses Powerlessness When researching the use of tag questions in the speech of both sexes, Holmes (1984) found that 61% of tag questions used by men were to express uncertainty, as opposed to just 35% used by women, and women used tag questions more than twice as much as men did as a facilitative device (Cameron et al, 1989: 89). These findings reveal that not only can tag questions be used by both sexes, but are not necessarily evidence of powerlessness.

26. Molly • Post-92 university • Third year • had taken A-levels in Psychology and English Literature, and was now in the third year of a joint honours course in these subjects.

27. Molly • She enjoyed her A-level Psychology course but was unsure whether she wanted to work in the field. A joint course in English Literature and Psychology would allow her to choose a wider range of future employment, possibly to include teaching.

28. Molly - different expectations & requirements • ‘In Psychology they really want you to look at other people's work and critique it: say, for example, this paper was good but there was a small sample size. But in English they tend not to look for any critique of arguments. They just want you to pick up on what is there and really go deeper and analyse it.’

29. Discuss some of the reasons why modern clinical and occupational psychologists rely more heavily on tests of individual cognitive abilities than tests of general intelligence In order to focus on the use of psychological testing within the occupational and clinical psychology disciplines, it is first necessary to define what is meant by psychological testing. The term refers to a “measuring tool which has three defining characteristics; 1) a psychological test is a sample of behavior, 2) the sample is obtained under standardized conditions and 3) there are established rules for scoring, or for obtaining quantitative information from the behavior sample” (Murphy and Davidshofer, 2001, p.3). Molly starts with a definition and citation

30. Discuss some of the reasons why modern clinical and occupational psychologists rely more heavily on tests of individual cognitive abilities than tests of general intelligence The introductory paragraph then moves to define the direction of the essay, and suggests a clear view of the knowledge required to answer the question: However, simply knowing the definition of psychological testing is insufficient on its own to understand the reasons why modern clinical and occupational psychologists rely more heavily on tests of individual cognitive abilities than tests of general intelligence. In order to understand the preference for measuring individual cognitive abilities, one must consider background theory such as the ‘g factor’ and theories of general intelligence, along with theories of multiple intelligences and the measurement of specific cognitive abilities.

31. Molly’s subject schemas • ‘In English, we are not encouraged to use secondary sources of information; which is very hard for me as a Psychology student, because I'm constantly looking for things to back up my argument.’ • ‘English tutors encourage you very much to develop your own ideas from the text, whereas, in Psychology, you can't just put forward a point without backing it up with previous research reports.’

32. In your view, what does Eliot mean by ‘tradition’ in ‘Tradition and the Individual Talent’? In Eliot’s ‘Tradition and the individual talent’, Eliot refers to many definitions of tradition, some of which reflect the generally accepted concept of tradition and some that challenge the accepted notion. The challenge in understanding Eliot’s essay is the fact that he does not define what he means by tradition from the beginning, but instead interweaves it into explanations of what he means throughout the essay.

33. Molly may enjoy constructing her own concepts but seems frustrated that she cannot (as she did in the introduction to her Psychology essay) give a definition: In Eliot’s ‘Tradition and the individual talent’, Eliot refers to many definitions of tradition, some of which reflect the generally accepted concept of tradition and some that challenge the accepted notion. The challenge in understanding Eliot’s essay is the fact that he does not define what he means by tradition from the beginning, but instead interweaves it into explanations of what he means throughout the essay.

34. In your view, what does Eliot mean by ‘tradition’ in ‘Tradition and the Individual Talent’? ‘The more perfect the artist, the more completely separate in him will be the man who suffers and the mind which creates.” Eliot argues here that not only does an artist have to depersonalise his work, but he has to remain almost two completely separate people. This can be linked back to the idea of the combining of tradition with the individual talent. However a Freudian critic would argue against this idea, since one must question whether it is possible for a writer or any artist to remain separate from his work.’ • Despite her belief that her English tutors didn’t require contextual reading, it seems that Molly cannot resist introducing a psychological critique of Eliot's concept.

35. Molly • ‘If English went over to Psychology to see how we had to write, they’d be more understanding; actually it’s not as easy as they might think to switch styles and reference systems and all the rest of it … • ‘Equally, Psychology don't have a clue how we write in English.’

36. Meeting writing challenges • In their English assignments, Viv and (to a lesser extent) Molly have to try to adduce appropriate knowledge without a confident mental representation of the demands of the discipline and/or of the assignment.

37. How to teach academic literacy? • If the literacy practices of subject disciplines vary in crucial ways - if, indeed, there are multiliteracies within the academy - it would seem impossible to assist students except from within the subject discipline.

38. Networked assumptions about valid knowledge • The key differences in the kind of writing required by different academic disciplines are epistemological (Lea & Street 1998). • So what are the epistemological differences between the various humanities and social science subjects?

39. Which academic subject? • How significant were notions of racial otherness in the construction and maintenance of nineteenth century colonialism? • Explore the individual's encounter with "otherness" in the two stories by Conrad. • Discuss the main differences between modern and non-modern societies.

40. Guess the subject • What do you understand by the critic’s suggestion that “it is through negatives, absences, understatements” that Anne becomes a presence for the reader? • Discuss the representation of women as "subsidiary" or "marginal" in two or more early modern plays. •  Using [ ] research on identity, discuss what it means to be white.

41. Problems of transition • “Trying to understand what [tutors] are looking for”(3rd year student) • “[I’d like] a summary lecture at the beginning so you know what direction you’re meant to be heading … as opposed to floating along and hoping you’ll have an epiphany”(2nd year student)

42. Constructing a schema • Given the extent to which the philosophy of cultural studies has imbued the humanities and social sciences, a more explicit acknowledgement of approaches and concepts might be helpful to many students when trying to construct a schema for their writing.

43. Teaching academic writing • A focus on writing as a means of learning rather than of assessment, involving an emphasis on low-stakes, collaborative, formative writing, might help students to construct the knowledge required by each subject. (Hodgson and Harris 2012)

44. Teaching academic writing • We need a cultural and critical pedagogy that supports students' transition into academic writing – whether in essay or other mode - through institutional networks that are, in both their human and non-human elements, transparent and supportive.