Foundations of Research

1. Foundations of Research Module 3; What does science ‘do’? • This is a PowerPoint Show • Click through it by pressing any key. • If this does not open as a show go to “slide show” to start it. • Focus & think about each point; do not just passively click. Dr. David J. McKirnan, University of Illinois at Chicago, Psychology; mckirnanuic@gmail.com

2. What does science do? What does Science do? Describe the world Made predictions(hypotheses) Develop & test theories Apply findings or theories Section Overview

3. 1. Describing the world Science: Description Prediction Theory Application • 1. Qualitative Description • Simple observation: Describe what goes on “in the wild”. • Record patterns of behavior in specific groups or places. • Valuable for formulating hypotheses.

4. Science and description • Of course description is a key building block in any area of study… Mathematics Describing the Real World: Pre-calculus and Trigonometry. Bruce H. Edwards, link here. World Music: A Retrospect Across The Globe, Venus Umesh. Link.

5. 1. Describing the world Science: Description Prediction Theory Application • 2. Quantitative description • Tracking patterns or systems using numbers • Surveys, polls… • Archival data. • Physical observations • Useful for both developing and testing hypotheses. From: Climate Site; How do climate models work? Link.

6. Examples of Descriptive Research Science: Description Prediction Theory Application • Categories of mental illnesses. • Epidemiology; Behavior in different groups • Where is AIDS most common in the U.S.? • Uniform crime rates. • Taxonomies: Behavioral categories • Personality "types”.

7. Descriptive research Paleontology attempts to accurately describe the predecessors of humans to understand evolution • Carefully describing specimens and the conditions where they are found can: • Produce insights into environmental change and evolution • Allow us to test hypotheses & develop theory. E X A M P L E

8. 2. Science and Predictions Science: Description Prediction Theory Application  What test score best predicts college success?  Can I predict which employees will steal? • These applications (should) stem from a theory. • Verbal & quantitative aptitude  academic success • A specific personality constellation  criminality… • That is (or should be…) supported by empirical evidence. Practical applications:

9. 2. Science and Predictions Science: Description Prediction Theory Application • Testing hypotheses: • An hypothesis is a prediction • Correlational research; • I predict that cultures undergoing rapid economic change will be prone to irrational beliefs. • Experimental research; • I predict that interventions to stabilize economic conditions will decrease people’s irrational beliefs. Practical applications:

10. Predictions and theory development Correlating certain anatomical features of “proto-humans” with physical environments can test or develop theories about natural selection pressures. Scientists can then predict (test hypotheses about) the types of fossils that should appear in different places. E X A M P L E

11. 3. Developing & Testing Theory Science: Description Prediction Theory Application Theory is the ‘bottom line’ of science • Identify basic (Ψ, physical…) processes… • that are systematically related… • that show how or why something works. i.e., what “causes” a phenomenon in the natural world.

12. Predictions and theory development New data have led us to rethink the basic process of human evolution (i.e., change our theories) • from a simple progression • to a widening “bush” of parallel species. E X A M P L E

13. Predictions and theory development The effectspaleontologists see in their data lead them to rethink the shape of the evolutionary tree that must cause them. This leads to a reconsideration of basic processes – e.g., selection pressures - that shape human evolution. E X A M P L E

14. 3. Testing theory: Mediating effects Science: Description Prediction Theory Application What might lead to superstitions or irrational beliefs? A. We describe a simple empirical effect (correlation): Social & economic uncertainty Irrational beliefs (Social uncertainty predicts more widespread irrational beliefs)

15. 3. Testing theory: Mediating effects Science: Description Prediction Theory Application What might lead to irrational beliefs? B. How does this work? What Theory may explain this? Uncertainty Need to feel control Irrational beliefs (Superstition may help people feel in control of their world under times of uncertainty.)

16. 3. Testing theory: Mediating effects Science: Description Prediction Theory Application What might lead to irrational beliefs? B. How does this work? What Theory may explain this? Uncertainty Need to feel control Irrational beliefs Critical thinking (…particularly among people with lower critical thinking skills.)

17. Theory and processes Uncertainty Need to feel control Irrational beliefs Critical thinking • Our theory helps identify basic economic or psychological processes; • specifies how they may be related; • and where / how we may change the outcome

18. Theory and processes Uncertainty Need to feel control Irrational beliefs • Why hypotheses does this theory contain? • How might you test them? • How else might you think of this theory? • What other variables may be important? • How might you change some of the arrows? Critical thinking

19. 4. Applications of theory Science: Description Prediction Theory Application I use theory (and evidence) about learning to design this course… We using practices derived from basic learning theory to “teach” people to no longer have phobias. • …or we can use an intervention study to actually test a theory Behavioral or biomedical interventions often compare treatments based on differing theories. We use theory to design interventions

20. Theories and interventions One theory of smoking involves social networks: people are influenced by their friends’ smoking E X A M P L E An intervention study of smokingcessation showed that having people quit with their friends may be more effective that quitting by themselves.

21. Theories and interventions The theory was that social networks influence smoking. The hypothesis was that a network-based cessation program would work better E X A M P L E than an individual program. Testing the hypothesis both: • Pointed to a practical intervention approach; • Supported the theory that social networks are important to smoking and quitting.

22. What does science do? What does Science do? Describe the world Made predictions(hypotheses) Develop & test theories Apply findings or theories Section Overview

23. Elements of science, review 1 • Epidemiology is… • A way of classifying people or behaviors • The study of how frequent a behavior or “condition” is across a population. • The identification of basic psychological principles that underlie important behaviors • A core feature of a hypothesis.

24. Elements of science, review 2 • A Theory is… • A way of classifying people or behaviors • The study of how frequent a behavior or “condition” is across a population. • The identification of basic psychological principles that underlie important behaviors • A core feature of a hypothesis.

25. Elements of science, review 3 • A Prediction is… • A way of classifying people or behaviors • The study of how frequent a behavior or “condition” is across a population. • The identification of basic psychological principles that underlie important behaviors • A core feature of a hypothesis.

26. Elements of science, review 4 • A Taxonomy is… • A way of classifying people or behaviors • The study of how frequent a behavior or “condition” is across a population. • The identification of basic psychological principles that underlie important behaviors • A core feature of a hypothesis.