I HOPE YOU ENJOYED YOUR TWO-WEEK SPRING BREAK!

3. I HOPE YOU ENJOYED YOUR TWO-WEEK SPRING BREAK!

4. OR, IF YOU TOOK AN EXAM OR TWO, I HOPE YOU PASSED WITH FLYING COLORS!

5. TIME TO GET BACK TO OUR WORK!

8. NOT SO NEW ANY MORE! ADVERBIALS REVIEW: what we did last time.

9. CLASS #1: AP CLASS #2: AP/AdvP CLASS #3: AdvP, PP CLASS #4: PP CLASS #5: ADVERBIALS CLASS #6: ADVERBIALS CLASS #7: MIDTERM OVERVIEW AND SIMPLE SENTENCE INTRO MIDTERM TEST CLASS #8: SIMPLE SENTENCE CLASS #9: SIMPLE SENTENCE CLASS #10: COMPLEX SENTENCE CLASS #11: COMPLEX SENTENCE CLASS #12: COMPLEX SENTENCE , WRAP-UP & ORAL EXAM HINTS

10. SINCE WE ARE SLIGHTLY BEHIND SCHEDULE IN TERMS OF PRACTICE CLASSES… • THE MIDTERMEXAM IS RE-SCHEDULED FOR • MAY 15, 2012 THAT’S TUESDAY FOUR WEEKS FROM NOW. • THE EXACT TIME WILL BE ANNOUNCED SOON, BUT IT WILL BE IN THE AFTERNOON AND IT WILL TAKE PLACE IN THE AUDITORIUM (‘AMFITEATAR’)

11. ADJUNCTS SEMANTIC CLASSIFICATION

12. SEMANTIC TYPES OF ADJUNCTS

13. 1. ADJUNCTS – PROCESS • They favor the FINAL position • Some can take the MEDIAL position • Co-occurrence possible: She was accidentallystruck with a racketby her partner.

14. 2. ADJUNCTS – SPACE / PLACE (1/2) • Co-occurrence is possible. Relative order is fixed: • distance + position: He swam a milein the open sea. • direction + position: He fell into the waternear that rock . • distance + direction: She walked a few stepstowards him. • two of the same subtype: position smaller/more specific + position bigger/less specific • Many people eat in restaurantsin London. • goal + source or source + goal (depending on information structure): • We flew from Cairo to Istanbul. We flew to Istanbul from Cairo. • Only adverbials of same meaning can be coordinated: • I drove down Gower Street and into University College/*several miles.

15. 2. ADJUNCTS – SPACE / PLACE (2/2) Position of SPACE ADJUNCTS in the sentence: • Normally, they take FINAL positions • If they are clustered, the order is: DISTANCE – DIRECTION – POSITION She walked [a few steps] [towards him] [in the dark] • SPACE ADJUNCTS OF POSITION can be moved to INITIAL position: On the top of the building, two men were gesticulating wildly. Some space adjuncts denoting POSITION AND DIRECTION cause subject-operator inversion (LOCATIVE INVERSION) when they are placed initially: Here he is! There was the book. Down swooped the hawk.

16. 3. ADJUNCTS – TIME (1/5) • They typically favor the FINAL position. • However, they can often take the INITIAL position: In 1982, the economy started to recover. For many years, no one wanted to buy the house. • Some, especially short adjuncts (such as: always, often, just, recently, already) take the MEDIAL position: She oftenarrives late. You could then take a train to London.

17. 3. ADJUNCTS – TIME (2/5) TIME ADJUNCTS – SUBCLASSIFICATION

18. 3. ADJUNCTS – TIME (3/5) • TIME ADJUNCTS – SUBCLASSIFICATION: • TIME WHEN/POSITION – answers the question WHEN? See you tomorrow / then. • Two of the same type: more specific + less specific I’ll see you [at nine] [on Monday]. • However, if one of the two adjuncts is very long, the order is: shorter + longer I lived there in the fiftieswhen my first child was born. • DURATION (backward/forward span) – three subtypes: • Duration of specific or indefinite length: answers the question HOW LONG? He walked for 6 hours. He waited from 1 to 5.He worked all day. • Duration – forward span: answers the question TILL WHEN? He will arrive till / until five o’clock. He didn’t arrive until 5. (till + negation) • Duration – backward span: answers the question SINCE WHEN? He will arrive till / until five o’clock. He didn’t arrive until 5. (till + negation)

19. 3. ADJUNCTS – TIME (4/5) • TIME ADJUNCTS – SUBCLASSIFICATION: • FREQUENCY • Frequency of occasion: answers the question HOW MANY TIMES? He did it twice. He sent that message three times. • Frequency of period: answers the question HOW OFTEN? He is paid daily/monthly. • Definite frequency: TWICE, DAILY • Indefinite frequency – four subsets on the scale: • UNIVERSAL FREQUENCY: always • HIGH FREQUENCY: often, frequently • USUAL OCCURRENCE: usually, generally • LOW FREQUENCY: seldom, hardly ever, never • low frequency time adjuncts sometimes cause NEGATIVE INVERSION when they are in the initial position: Neverhave I seen such a play. • OTHER TIME RELATIONSHIPS: previously, again, already…

20. 3. ADJUNCTS – TIME (5/5) • When time adjuncts co-occur, their relative order is: 1. DURATION – 2. FREQUENCY – 3. POSITION I was there [for a short while] [every day or so] [last year].

21. THIS IS WHERE WE STOPPED LAST WEEK. SO, LET’S CONTINUE!

22. 4. ADJUNCTS – CONTINGENCY • Mostly occur in the INITIAL and FINAL positions. • When they co-occur in the FINAL position, the order is: 1. RESPECT – 2. PROCESS – 3. SPACE – 4. TIME – 5. CONTINGENCY Many people died [in Africa] [in the 20th century] [from malnutrition]. IMPORTANT NOTE: CAUSE vs. REASON CAUSE (no subject’s control): She died of cancer. REASON (subject’s control): Working hard, she got promoted.

23. 5. ADJUNCTS – FOCUSING THIS IS AN ADVERB MODIFYING NP, NOT AN ADJUNCT. • They don’t favor any position in particular. • The general rule for their position is that they are placed before the focused element: She had also questioned only her patients only the previous week also. • If the whole predication is focused, they take medial position: She had only questioned her patients the previous week. HOWEVER, not all focusing expressions are really adjuncts: He [only] wants to help. (ADJUNCT) [Only he] wants to help. (MODIFIER OF NP)

24. FOCUSING ADJUNCTS: additional info • RESTRICTIVE FOCUSING ADJUNCTS make it explicit that WHAT IS BEING COMMUNICATED IS RESTRICTED TO THE PART THAT IS FOCUSED: • EXCLUSIVES restrict the application of the communication EXCLUSIVELY to the part that is focused: • Alone, exactly, exclusively, just, merely, only, precisely, purely, simply, solely • PARTICULARIZERS restrict the application of the communication PARTICULARLY OR MAINLY to the part that is focused: • Chiefly, especially, largely, mainly, mostly, notably, particularly, primarily, principally, specifically, at least, in particular • ADDITIVE FOCUSING ADJUNCTS make it explicit that WHAT IS BEING COMMUNICATED IS AN ADDITION: • Again, also, either, equally, even, further, likewise, neither, nor, similarly, too, as well, in addition

25. 6. ADJUNCTS – DEGREE/INTENSIFIER

26. DEGREE/INTENSIFIER ADJUNCTS • Intensifiers have in common the heightening or lowering effect on some unit in the sentence. • The term “INTENSIFIERS” is slightly misleading, because they are not restricted to intensification: THEY INDICATE A POINT ON THE INTENSITY SCALE WHICH MAY BE HIGH OR LOW. • There are two groups of INTENSIFIER ADJUNCTS: • AMPLIFIERS: they scale upwards and are divided into MAXIMIZERS and BOOSTERS • DOWNTONERS: they have a lowering effect and are divided into COMPROMISERS, DIMINISHERS, MINIMIZERS and APPROXIMATORS

27. DEGREE/INTENSIFIER ADJUNCTS: AMPLIFIERS • MAXIMIZERS denote the upper extreme on the scale. • BOOSTERS denote a high degree or a high point on the scale. • MAXIMIZERS include: absolutely, altogether, completely, entirely, extremely, fully, perfectly, quite, thoroughly, totally, utterly, most and in all respects. • BOOSTERS include: badly, bitterly, deeply, enormously, far, greatly, heartily, highly, intensely, much, severely, so, strongly, terribly, violently, well, a great deal, a good deal, a lot, by far and more.

28. DEGREE/INTENSIFIER ADJUNCTS: DOWNTONERS • COMPROMISERS have a slight lowering effect. • Kind of, soft of, quite, rather (I kind of like it.) • DIMINISHERS scale the intensity downwards. • Mildly, moderately, partially, slighlty (I partly agree with you) • MINIMIZERS scale the intensity downwards, but close to the minimum • Barely, hardly, little, scarcely… (I can scarcely ignore her views) • APPROXIMATORS serve to express an approximation to the force of the verb, whine indicating its non-application. • Almost, nearly, practically (I almost resigned.)

29. 7. ADJUNCTS - MODALITY • They favor THE MEDIAL POSITION. They are very similar to DISJUNCTS, but they do not NECESSARILY CONVERY THE OPINION OF THE SPEAKER > they are more general and are NOT SUBJECTIVE (i.e.FACTUAL). Compare: Certainly, she is a great writer. She is certainly going to sign a publishing deal. DISJUNCT MODALITY ADJUNCT

30. 8. ADJUNCTS – RESPECT/VIEWPOINT

31. VIEWPOINT ADJUNCTS • All viewpoint adjuncts can be roughly paraphrased by: • “if we consider what we are saying from a/an <ADJECTIVE> point of view”, or • “if we consider what we are saying from the point of view of <NOUN PHRASE> ”. • Most viewpoint adjuncts are derived from adjectives using –LY suffix. • They are SENTENTIAL ADJUNCTS in the sense that their meaning encompasses THE WHOLE SENTENCE. • That is why they favor INITIAL POSITION, but can occur in the MEDIAL POSITION. • Visually, it was a powerful novel. • Morally, politically and economically, it is urgent that the government should act more effectively. • To tap a private telephone line is not technically a very difficult operation. • Weatherwise, we are going to have a bad spring.

32. RESPECT ADJUNCTS • All respect adjuncts can provide a frame for the interpretation of the activity denoted by the verb > they, in a way, restrict the meaning of the verb to particular DOMAIN OF THE ACTIVITY. • They are PREDICATION ADJUNCTS in the sense that their meaning only modifies THE PREDICATION (the part of the sentence to the right of the verb). • That is why they favor FINAL POSITION: • She is advising me legally. • She is solving the problem from the PR perspective only. • The president will accept that phrasing of the justification for the attack just as far as international relations are concerned.

33. 9. ADJUNCTS - SUBJUNCTS • Very similar to MANNER adjuncts. • They favor the INITIAL position: Nervously, he answered the phone. (SUBJUNCT) He answered the phone nervously. (MANNER ADJUNCT)

34. THE END OF ADJUNCTS

35. HOWEVER, THERE ARE ALSO DISJUNCTS AND CONJUNCTS

36. DIGRESSION: frequent words • The most frequent words in English are: • THE • A • IS • ARE • WAS • WERE • DID • DO • However, these are just INDIVIDUAL WORDS. • We know that language actually operates on UNITS LARGER THAN WORDS: PHRASES and CLAUSES • So, what do you think, what is the most frequent phrase/clause in the English language?

37. THE MOST FREQUENT PHRASE/CLAUSE IN ENGLISH: IMPORTANT NOTE: THIS REFERS TO SPOKEN ENGLISH YOU KNOW /j’ nou/ Closely followed by: I mean, I suppose, You see,Sort of and similar expressions.

38. IS THIS GOOD ENGLISH? YOU KNOW, I MEAN, YOU SEE…AN EXAMPLE • When my sister and I were children, we had a small, ahm, a little, sort of,patch, you know, cunningly a bit tucked away at the back of somewhere at our place and we used to grow tomatoes and the odd vegetable. • I mean, I've always felt that's an important part of , you know, one'sconnectionwith nature and the soil, and so, I suppose, that was part of it. • But then when I, you know, when I came down here, and I just wanted to get stuck in and I'd always wanted to do a bit of farming - I'm not very good at it but fortunately there are lots of other people around to help. IF YOU WANT TO SOUND LIKE AN EDUCATED PERSON, YOU SHOULDN’T TALK LIKE THIS. OFFICIALLY, THIS IS REALLY BAD ENGLISH!

39. WHO IS, THEN, THIS PERSON? • Who is this person that tortures and abuses the beauty of the language of Shakespeare, Chaucer, Dickens, Joyce, etc? • Who is this uneducated scum of the earth who dares ruin the perfection of English as it has evolved over two millennia? • What is his walk of life, education and social background? • PRINCE CHARLES > heir to the throne of England

40. YOU KNOW, YOU SEE, I MEAN… • ALL OF THESE THINGS ARE DISJUNCTS, ACTUALLY.

41. DISJUNCTS RELEVANT POINTS

42. DISJUNCTS

43. DISJUNCTS: more info • Disjuncts are typically PPs and CLAUSES. • STYLE DISJUNCTS convey either: • Speaker’s assertion of truth (truthfully), or • Speaker’s indication of generalization (broadly). • ATTITUDINAL DISJUNCTS comment on: • TRUTH VALUE OF THE SENTENCE (CERTAINTY) • General: certainly • General + perception: obviously • General + comment on reality of content: really • CONTENT OF COMMUNICATION (EVALUATION) • General: understandably • General + comment on clause subject: wisely (similar to subjuncts)

44. CONJUNCT RELEVANT POINTS

45. CONJUNCTS (1/2) • They have a CONNECTIVE FUNCTION between SENTENCES (sometimes, they are called SENTENCE LINKERS) • Most typically, they take the INITIAL POSITION, but they are not restricted to it. • Sometimes, they can take the MEDIAL and FINAL position:

46. CONJUNCTS (2/2) • There are many classifications of conjuncts, below there is a list of THE MOST FREQUENT classes of conjuncts (there are many other classes, which are not given here):

47. CONJUNCTS: add-on • According to most textbooks there are two more groups: • INFERENTIAL CONJUNCTS: • They convey an inference from what is implicit in the preceding sentence or sentences: • Else, otherwise, then, in other words, in that case • TEMPORAL TRANSITION CONJUNCTS: • They convey that the temporal ordering is simultaneous with the previous sentences (similar to TIME ADJUNCTS): • In the meantime, in the meanwhile…

48. CONJUNCTS: add-on • Also, according to most textbooks there are four subtypes of CONTRASTIVE CONJUNCTS: • REFORMULATORY CONTRASTIVE CONJUNCTS: • BETTER, RATHER, IN OTHER WORDS… • REPLACIVE CONTRASTIVE CONJUNCTS: • AGAIN, ALTERNATIVELY, RATHER, BETTER, WORSE, ON THE OTHER HAND • ANTITHETIC CONTRASTIVE CONJUNCTS: • CONTRARIWISE, CONTRASTINGLY, CONVERSLY, INSTEAD, OPPOSITELY, ON THE CONTRARY, IN CONTRAST, IN COMPARISON, ON THE OTHER HAND… • CONCESIVE CONTRASTIVE CONJUNCTS: • ANYHOW, ANYWAY, BESIDES, ALSE, HOWEVER, NONTHELESS, NEVERTHELESS, NOTWITHSTANDING, STILL, YET, IN ANY CASE, AT ANY RATE, FOR ALL THAT, ALL THE SAME…

49. MIDTERM TEST WHAT IT REALLY LOOKS LIKE… IT’S WORTH TAKING A GOOD LOOK, BECAUSE IT’S WORTH 25% (OF YOUR FINAL GRADE)

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