week 9

1. week 9

2. terms you should look up in Vogt • manifest variable • marginal frequency distribution • matched pairs • maturation effect • measurement error • meta-analysis • missing data • mutually exclusive • N! • nested variables • non sequitur

3. research is

4. challenging accepted or “received” knowledge (Alfred North Whitehead) • going beyond what is known (Bruner) • making the inaccessible accessible • getting smarter about the world in order to make it a better place (Lee Shulman) • figuring out what the devil people think they are up to (Geertz) • explaining links in a system (Bob Pianta)

5. all researchers must attend to funding • which funders are funding what journals • which journals are publishing what promotion • what kinds of research are valued in a given department, college, university

6. more on theory • theory needed to “see” data • creative or invented spellings • RUDF • hrp, ihovr, fih, bateg, jopt, ldr • chrk, jrgn • theory: children use the alphabet to produce creative & linguistically accurate spellings • educators couldn’t see this because of lack of linguistic knowledge—hear sounds that are not there. linguistic knowledge required to see and produce theory

7. fieldwork-basedresearch

8. basic assumptions • all people are smart • all people make sense • all people want to have a good life (heard this from Ray McDermott)

9. characteristics • occurs in natural setting (remembering that not much natural about many settings) • stress on understanding participants’ perspectives • prolonged and repetitive: generally takes 6 months to a year or more in the field

10. focus on action rather than behavior • behavior: what people do • action: what people intend as they do • search is for meaning constructed in daily interactions • data record is constructed from the concrete particulars of everyday life

11. fieldwork cycle • desk > field >desk >field >desk >field >desk . . . • observation >interview >observation >interview. . . • field jottings > fieldnotes > data record > analysis > writing > field jottings > fieldnotes > data record > . . .

12. generating data • observing • interviewing • collecting artifacts

13. rules • write it down • write it down • write it down

14. observe carefully, systematically, with discipline, and creatively • keep interviews short • construct fieldnotes immediately—same day • back data records up • write early, write often • for every hour in the field allot 2 hours at the desk

15. field jottings • notes taken in the field fieldnotes • constructed at the desk from field jottings, from memory, from “head notes,” reflection, etc • fieldnotes become part of the data record

16. coding • process of constructing categories from data records: • recurrences, patterns, salient events, threads • taking large data record and turning it into something small enough and manageable enough to work on

17. example of using statistics in field work Jefferson and Madison Combined poor not poor total 2-year 24 34 58 1-year 6 65 71 total 30 99 129 chi-square: 19.4 (1 df) p < .0001

18. Jefferson and Madison Combined non-white white total 2-year 10 48 58 1-year 9 62 71 total 19 110 129 chi-square: .530 (1 df) p < .5

19. Qualitative Methods Frederick Erickson What is General Nature? is there such a Thing? What is General Knowledge? is there such a Thing? Strictly Speaking All Knowledge is Particular William Blake

20. a central research interest in human meaning in social life and its elucidation and exposition by the researcher (119) • basic validity criterion: the immediate and local meanings of actions, as defined from actor’s point of view (119) • research interpretive as a matter of substantive focus and intent, rather than procedures in data collection (119)

21. central substantive concerns • the nature of classrooms as socially and culturally organized environments for learning • the nature of teaching as one, but only one, aspect of the reflexive learning environment • the nature (and content) of the meaning-perspectives of teacher and learner as intrinsic to the educational process (120)

22. My work is an attempt to combine close analysis of fine details and behavior in everyday social interaction with analysis of the wider social context—the field of broader social influences—within which the face-to-face interaction takes place. In method, my work is an attempt to be empirical without being positivist; to be rigorous and systematic in investigating the slippery phenomena of everyday interaction and its connections, through the medium of subjective meaning, with the wider social world. (120)

23. fieldwork • intensive, long term participation in the field • careful recording of what happens in the setting • subsequent analytic reflection on the record and reporting using detailed description, vignettes, quotations, analytic charts, summary tables, and descriptive statistics (121)

24. interpretive methods useful to discover • specific structure of occurrences rather than general character and overall distribution • meaning-perspectives of particular actors • the location of naturally occurring points of contrast to be used as natural experiments • identification of specific causal linkages not identified by experimental methods, and development of new theories about patterns identified by surveys or experiments.

25. to answer the following questions • what is happening, specifically, in the social action in this setting • what do the actions mean to the actors at the moment they took place • how are happenings organized socially and culturally • how related to other system levels inside and outside the setting • how does organization of daily life here compare to other places and times (121)

26. why answers needed (121-122) • the invisibility of everyday life • need for specific understanding through documentation of concrete details of practice • need to consider local meanings • need for comparative understanding of different social settings • need for comparative understanding beyond the immediate circumstances of the local setting

27. perspectives of actors often overlooked (124-125) • people who hold meaning-perspectives of interest often relatively powerless, e.g., teachers and students • meaning-perspectives often held outside conscious awareness by those who hold them, and not explicitly articulated • meaning-perspectives viewed as peripheral or irrelevant—needing to be eliminated in order for objective inquiry to be done

28. action and behavior • one cannot assume that the same behavior has the same meaning to different individuals. Thus the crucial analytic distinction is that between behavior, the physical act, and action, which is the physical behavior plus the meaning interpretations held by the actor and those with whom the actor interacts (126-127)

29. social action (127-128) • Weber: a social relationship exists when people reciprocally adjust their behavior to each other with respect to the meaning they give it, and when this reciprocal adjustment determines the form it takes. • Standing is a behavior; standing in line is social action

30. meanings-in-action shared by group are local in two ways (128-129) • they are distinctive to a particular group who come to share certain specific local understandings and traditions—a microculture • they are local in the sense of the locality of moment-to-moment enactment of social action in real time (e.g., today’s enactment of breakfast differs from yesterdays)

31. meanings also non-local in origin • the influence of culture (learned and shared standards for perceiving, believing, acting, and evaluating the actions of others) • the perception that local members have interests or constraints beyond the local group goal: to discover how local and non-local forms of social organization relate to specific people interacting together (129)

32. The search is not for abstract universals arrived at by statistical generalization from a sample to a population, but for concrete universals, arrived at by studying a specific case in great detail and then comparing it with other cases studied in equally great detail. Some of what occurs is universal—across culture and time; some is specific to the historical and cultural circumstances of the situation. Each instance a unique system that nonetheless displays universal properties. (p. 130)

33. A central task for interpretive, participant-observational research is to enable researchers and practitioners to become much more specific in their understanding of the inherent variation from situation to situation. This means building better theory about the social and cognitive organization of particular forms of life as immediate environments for the actors involved. (p. 133)

34. ethics

35. Seiber 9: maximizing benefit • risks to subjects (must be) reasonable in relation to anticipated benefits, if any, to subjects, and the importance of the knowledge that may reasonably be expected to result. • look carefully at the hierarchy of benefits and hierarchy of beneficiaries

36. iv: vulnerable populationsch 10: children and adolescents 10.1 legal constraints • IRB approval • documented permission of parent or guardian and assent of child—consent of both parents may be required • no greater risk than usual, unless IRB finds risk justified by anticipated benefits

37. exempted research (but one must still go to IRB) • research in normal educational settings, involving normal practices • use of educational tests if subjects anonymous • waiver of parental permission • minimal risk, will not adversely affect subjects, cannot be be carried out without waiver • if permission will not protect child • see 4 other circumstances on page 113

38. waiver of assent • if IRB determines children incapable of assenting, or if assent would render research impossible • research with greater than minimal risk • possible but one must be very careful 10.2 risk from developmental perspective • discussion based on outdated developmental theory, but one must consider the issue

39. 10.3 privacy and autonomy from developmental perspective • be aware of children’s right to privacy, and their lack of control in general • parents’ desire to know not a right 10.4 assent, consent, and parental permission

40. 10.5 high risk behaviors institutionalized kids • unlikely to believe research independent of institution or that she can decline with impunity • unlikely to believe promises of confidentiality • issues of privacy, normally salient for adolescents, heightened for these kids • maltreated kids likely to experience research as more stressful than normal kids

41. researchers (of high risk kids) should • anticipate ethical dilemmas—keep detailed logs • hold frequent staff meetings—address problems early • secure assent and consent when possible—avoid parental consent only when it would jeopardize kids • take special precautions to protect confidentiality—collect data anonymously if possible • involve community in design of intervention

42. 10.6 schools • Buckley Amendment: protects records • school permission must come from district • avoid coercion • minimize coercion in request to participate • minimize peer pressure or fear of ridicule for not participating • keep rewards small and not valuable

43. writing

44. lit review grading • 20: writing—clear, explicit, concise, grammatical • 20: APA—citations, references, headings, format • 20: organization—necessary parts, balanced • 40: content—critical, convincing, clear

45. organization • cover page • abstract • intro • review section • organize review according to explicit and logical scheme • note whether pieces reviewed empirical, theoretical, or polemical • end each section with summary • this section should be the bulk of the lit review, at least 75%

46. discussion • synthesize lit reviewed. Critique lit as whole—what is known, not known, what needs to be known, how well what is known is known. • conclusion • address original question(s). limitations, implications, further research needed • personal reflections • personal statement about what you have learned in the process, about research, about being a researcher.

47. general hints • do not write linearly, i.e., don’t start at page 1, the 2,3,… to 30 • write sections and subsections—when you get stuck, move to a different section • think of the process as putting together already written sections—like a puzzle • get an entire rough draft done before you start to rewrite and edit

48. need to convince reader you have reviewed a literature • if part of a literature, specify parameters and explain why • if parts of different literatures, specify and explain why • not just a list of studies—organize them and explain relationship of parts to whole • make the weaknesses of your search explicit—this is a beginning lit review, a preliminary version, weaknesses inevitable

49. citations in text (207-214) one work by one author • Chen (2000) found that . . . • Teachers reported that kids . . . reading levels (Chen, 2000). • do not repeat year within same paragraph: Chen (2000) found that . . . . In the same research, Chen also found . . . .

50. one work by multiple authors • 2 authors: cite both names every time • 3, 4, or 5 authors: cite all names first time, after that, Chen et al. • 6 or more authors: Chen et al. always • exception, if two references would shorten to same, e.g., Chen et al. (2000) and Chen et al. (2000), include enough names to differentiate them, e.g., Chen, Martinez, et al. (2000), Chen, Zodiates, et al. (2000)