Chapter 21: The Muslim Empires

1. Chapter 21: The Muslim Empires

3. The Ottomans: From Frontier Warriors to Empire Builders • Ottomans gain ground in Asia Minor (Anatolia) throughout the 1350’s • Ottomans rapidly expanded their territories but bypassed Constantinople until 1453. • 1453- Ottomans conquered Constantinople with 100,000 soldiers under Mehmed II. • Extended empire into Syria, Egypt, north Africa, Hungary. • Powerful navy and army. • Ottomans were a major power in the Arab World, the Balkans, and around the Black and Red Seas.

6. The Ottomans: From Frontier Warriors to Empire Builders • Turkic Cavalry quickly turns into a warrior aristocracy • Janissaries- infantry divisions which dominated the imperial armies • Legal slaves • Schooling and conversion to Islam -controlled the artillery and firearms so they were the most powerful component of the military. • Eventually tried to translate military service into political influence.

7. The Ottomans: From Frontier Warriors to Empire Builders • Ottoman rulers were absolute monarchs (sultans). • Ottoman conquest often meant effective administration and tax relief for areas annexed to the empire. • As the empire grew, sultans grew more and more distant from their subjects. • Administration was carried out by a grand vizier. • Vizier was the true head of state • Islamic principles of political succession. • Political succession was vague and often contested. • Sons often battled after the death of their father

8. The Ottomans: From Frontier Warriors to Empire Builders • Ottomans restored Constantinople. • Saint Sophia cathedral was converted into a mosque. • Each Sultan tried to beautify the capital. • Sultans and administrators built mansion, religious schools, hospitals, rest houses. • Great bazaars in Constantinople. • Merchant and artisan classes. • Persian, Arabic, Turkish

9. The Ottomans: From Frontier Warriors to Empire Builders • Empire lasted for over 600 years (1299-1923). • Ottomans were able to fight off any rivals. • Empire was too large to maintain. • The effectiveness of the administration and bureaucracy diminished. • Local officials squeezed peasants and laborers for taxes and services. • Peasant uprisings and abandonment of lands

10. The Ottomans: From Frontier Warriors to Empire Builders • Ottoman internal military problems led them to fall behind in improvements to military. • 1571- Battle of Lepanto • Between Ottomans and Spanish • Ottoman fleet crushed Spanish & Venetian fleet • Lost all control of eastern Mediterranean • Portuguese naval victories in Indian Ocean (Ottomans couldn’t push the Portuguese from IO in 1500’s) • Silver from Peru and Mexico led to inflation • Ottomans fell behind in technology

11. The Ottoman Empire • Influx of silver bullion in the 16th century from the New World also destabilized the Ottoman economy • Ottomans did not overly concern themselves with developments in Europe, like Scientific Revolutions, enlightenment, and industrial advancements of the 17-1800’s. • Ottomans fell behind in trade and warfare more than anything • Janissaries block most modes of change in defense of their own power.

12. The Shi’a Challenge of the Safavids • The Safavids rose from Turkic nomadic groups after Mongol invasions. • Safavids were Shi’a Muslims. (recognized the 4th caliph; Muhammad’s son in law) • Ottomans = Sunni • Safavids = Shi’a

13. The Safavids • Sail al-Din (Saladin): • began a militant campaign to purify and reform Islam (after the Mongol collapse of the 14th century) • Spread Islam throughout Turkish tribes. • Isma’il won victories and was declared shah (emperor) in Tabriz (1501).

15. The Safavids • Variants in Islam led the Safavids to battle with the Ottomans by 1514. • The Safavids were NOT as militarily technologically advanced as the Ottomans. • The Safavids were sorely defeated at the Battle of Chaldiran. • Isma’il was largely ineffective after this defeat. • Ottomans could not take Tabriz (capital) because of distance from supply lines • Shi’aism would be confined to this area (modern day Iran/southern Iraq)

17. The Shi’a Challenge of the Safavids • 1534 CE- Tahmasp I won the throne. • Turkic chiefs used as Warrior nobles • 1587 CE- Abbas I (Abbas the Great), empire reached its height of strength and prosperity • Used youths captured in Russia, educated and converted to Islam, in the army (like Janissaries) • Moved capital to Isfahan • Used Europeans for assistance against Ottomans • Army of 40,000 troops

18. The Shi’a Challenge of the Safavids • Safavid used Turkish as their language • Elaborate palaces for shahs • Mullahs were used as mosque officials and pray leaders. • Bulk of Iranian population was converted to Shi’ism • Abbas I wanted his empire to be a center for international trade and Islamic culture • Set up capital in Isfahan • Special building projects

19. The Shi’a Challenge of the Safavids • Societies were dominated by warrior aristocracies. • Shahs promoted public works projects and promoted trade. • Women faced legal and social disadvantages. • Wives and concubines exerted influences over shahs. • Most women lived unenviable lives.

20. The Shi’a Challenge of the Safavids • Safavids reigned from 1501-1736. • The collapse of the Safavid empire was rapid ( after Abbas the Great). • Imperial administration and weak rulers were responsible for the decline. • 1722- Afghani tribes took over Isfahan. • Nadir Khan Afshar proclaimed himself shah in 1736. • Area became battleground for surrounding empires, and nomadic raiders for years

21. The Mughals • Babur founds the Mughal Dynasty through military conquest by 1526. • Used Ottoman military tactics • Was less motivated by religion than the other Muslim Dynasties • Establishes a dynasty that will expand and last for over 300 years!

22. The Mughals and the Apex of Muslim Civilization in India • Babur’s conquests had only to do with gaining riches and not with religion. • Babur was a good military strategist who had a taste for art and music. • Babur left the Mughal empire to his son Humayan.

23. The Mughals • Babur dies at age 48 in 1530, and his son Humayan takes over. • Disputes over succession • Exiled into Safavid land • Returns to restore Mughal rule in 1556, and is successful • Dies as a result of library accident (!)

24. The Mughals • Akbar (one of Humayan’s sons) takes over at age 13 • Imperiled by enemies • One of the greatest leaders in history • Ruled at the same time as Elizabeth I, Philip of Spain, Suleyman the Magnificent, and Abbas I.

25. The Mughals and the Apex of Muslim Civilization in India • He extended the empire throughout north and central India. • Worked with Hindus throughout India. • Invented a new faith: Din-i-Ilahi • Used warrior aristocrats to run villages.

26. The Mughals and the Apex of Muslim Civilization in India • Akbar pushed for social changes. • He encouraged widow remarriage, discouraged child marriages, prohibited sati. • Mughal India reached its peak at the end of Akbar’s reign. • However, India had fallen behind in invention and sciences. • India was a major overseas destination for traders.

27. The Mughals • Akbar (cont’d) • Had a vision of uniting India under his rule • Patronized the arts • Pursued policies of reconciliation and cooperation with Hindu princes and the Hindu majority • Encouraged intermarriage • Abolished the Hindu head-tax • Promoted Hindus to the highest ranks • Ended a long-standing ban on the building of Hindu temples • Religious Tolerance was but a means to end sectarian divisions on the subcontinent • New faith: Din-i-ilahi which blended Hindu and Muslim elements

28. The Mughals • Akbar (cont’d) • Public works • Improved calendar • Alcohol regulation • Encouraged widow’s to remarry (not accepted in Hindu or Muslim society) and children NOT to marry • Outlawed Sati • His sons fight over who will be successor • Din-i-Ilahi was unsuccessful

30. The Mughals • Mughal rule reaches its zenith under the rule of Akbar’s sons…Jahangir (r. 1605-1627) and Shah Jahan (r.1627-1658). • Delhi, Agra, and Lahore are cultural centers • Mughal army was HUGE (with elephants!) • Poverty amongst lower classes was rampant • Lack of discipline and training in Mughal armies • Lagged behind the west in invention and the sciences • India was a trading post for the world, particularly exporting cotton, and other goods imported from Asia

31. The Mughals • Jahangir and Shah Jahan are both known to be Patrons of the Arts… • Building of the Taj Mahal • Blends Persian and Hindu traditions • Blends Islamic geometry with Hindu ornamentation

32. “If there is paradise on earth-It is here…it is here.”

33. The Mughals • Status of women was higher in the court of the ruler • Wives of Jahangir and Shah Jahan increased power as their husbands lost themselves in the arts and the vices • Other women however, did not fare so well. Many of the reforms pushed by Akbar were lost. • Sati found its way back, unveiled women were shunned, burden of dowry returned

34. The Mughals • Aurangzeb: Shah Jahan’s son, seized power • Two goals: • 1-extend Mughal control throughout the subcontinent • 2-purify Islam and rid the subcontinent of Hinduism

35. The Mughals • The first of his goals (unification of all of India) was successful, but created lots of enemies, and cost lots of money • While he led battles in the south, there were uprisings in the north! • Local leaders were growing more autonomous. • The lack of an efficient bureaucracy and administration, and lack of attention being paid to it, was causing the Dynasty to break apart!

36. The Mughals • Religious policies weakened the internal alliances and disrupted the social peace from Akbar. • Revival of sectarian violence (not conversion, as Aurangzeb had hoped for) • Forbade the building of new temples (Hindu), reinstated the head tax on Hindus. • Development of Sikhism as an anti-Muslim force on the subcontinent • Mughal Empire was under attack from all areas, and ultimately was too weak to do anything about it. • Decline of the Mughals leads to growing military and economic intervention by the Europeans (like, the British).

37. The Mughals and the Apex of Muslim Civilization in India • By the time of his death, Aurangzeb conquered most of the subcontinent. • Drained treasury. • Long wars occupied his time and he failed to complete administrative tasks and reforms. • His religious policies weakened internal alliances. • He left the empire weak and unstable. • Sikhs became an anti-Muslim threat.

38. In order to supply its elite Janissaries and palace bureaucrats with soldiers, the Turks… • Used feudal levies • Relied on old Muslim nobles and aristocrats • Forcibly conscripted young Christian boys, converted them to Islam, and trained them • Imported trained foreigners and mercenaries • Relied on Muslim clergy

39. Akbar used the following to build a stable state in India EXCEPT: • A well-trained, well-led military • An efficient bureaucracy and administration • Patronage of the arts and intellectual developments • Religious toleration and reconciliation with the Hindus • Promotion of foreigners, especially Europeans, to positions of power.

40. All of these developments weakened the rule of the Ottoman government EXCEPT • Powerful factions within the Janissaries and court bureaucrats • Harem politics by rival wives and their sons, who were potential heirs • The hedonistic lifestyles of many sultans • Corruption and graft • The development of the office of vizier