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Chapter 9. Inequalities of Gender and Sexual Orientation. Gender. Sex – biological distinctions between male and female. Includes primary and secondary sex organs
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Chapter 9 Inequalities of Gender and Sexual Orientation
Gender • Sex – biological distinctions between male and female. • Includes primary and secondary sex organs • Gender – the expectations and behaviors which varies from one society to another and refers to what is considered proper for males and females; acquired through socialization. • Gender identity – an awareness of being masculine or feminine, based on culture.
Gender Inequality • Gender Stratification – refers to men’s and women’s unequal access to power, property, and prestige • Gender/Sex = master status that cuts across all other identities in life • Label that guides our behavior and serves as a basis of power and privilege.
The Problem in Sociological Perspective • Sex is the major sorting device in every society in the world. • The development of sexism as a social problem • Waves of Feminism • Helen Hacker: first to apply the term minority towomen • Sexism: belief that one sex is innately superior to the other and the discrimination that results
The Scope of the Problem • Is male dominance universal? • Men’s domination of society has been in continuous existence throughout the globe from the earliest times to the present. • Most work is sex-typed: associated with one sex or the other • Universally, men’s activities are always given greater prestige. • It is the sex that is associated with the work that provides its prestige, not the work itself.
Major Areas of Discrimination • Political and legal • Education • Economic • Social • Women’s three major roles—sister/daughter, wife, and mother—fit this pattern of discrimination
Biological Evidence • Biological determinism – attribution of behavioral differences to inherited physical characteristics. • Obvious differences between sexes include muscle and bone structure and fatty tissue composition. • Dominant Position in Sociology • Social Factors Primary, Not Biological • If Biological, Should Be Less Variation
FunctionalistTheory • Theories of male dominance • Rewards for warriors • Social—the necessity to survive warfare • Biological—innate differences in the physical strength of men and women • Reproduction • Throughout history, a woman has been encumbered physically—unable to participate fully in the labor market • Ultimate result was a patriarchal society • Division of responsibilities between males and females survived because it was beneficial for human living. • Early humans found sex-based division of labor efficient and endured because it promoted the survival of the species. • The traditional division of labor has dysfunctions, especially for modern society.
Conflict Theory Principles of Power • Men and women have differential access to the necessary resources outside-the-home success. • By keeping the traditional division of labor intact, men can maintain the status quo and preserve the privileges they enjoy; protect their dominance of women and society. • Marxist and socialist feminists – position of women in capitalist society: • patriarchal (male-dominated) institutions and • the historical development of industrial capitalism.
Symbolic Interaction • Socialization • Parents teach gender roles subconsciously. • Most symbolic interactionists assume that gender differences are learned. • Gender definitions are imparted through socialization. • They are learned and reinforced through interaction with parents, teachers, peers, and the media. • Gender socialization occurs through elements of the mass media such as books, television, and advertising. • Stereotypes applied at birth tend to become reality through the self-fulfilling prophecy and continued socialization practices.
The Struggle for Equality • Until the 20th century, US women did not have the right to vote, hold property, make legal contracts, or serve on a jury • While women enjoy more rights today, gender inequality still continues to play a central role in social life. • Gaps continue to be reflected in the continuing occupational, economic, legal, and political inequality experienced by American women.
Everyday Life • Masculinity and machismo represent strength while femininity is perceived as weakness. • Derogatory feminine terms • Most dismiss remarks as insignificant • Such comments reveal derogatory attitude toward women and things feminine • Attitude that women face as part of their everyday lives
Media Contribution to Gender Socialization In general, the media present the most stereotypical version of gender definitions, thus reflecting and reinforcing the limits on the options available to both sexes. Nowhere in the mass media are gender role stereotypes more prevalent than in advertising. There are more than 250 million televisions in the US TV directs its advertising toward women, but ignores them in TV programming. Women often have supporting roles that reinforce traditional gender roles Hypersexualization
Gender Inequality in the US • Evidence of educational gains made by women. • More females than males enrolled in college. • Females earn 56% of all bachelor degrees • Women complete bachelor degrees faster than men • Proportion of professional degrees earned by women has increased sharply.
Gender Inequality • Despite gains some old practices persist • Women’s sports are still underfunded • Gender tracking – channeled into different fields • 81% of engineering degrees – males • 88% of library science degrees – women • Higher education • Women professors less likely to be in the higher ranks of academia • Paid less than their male counterparts • Less likely to be taken seriously
Gender Inequality in the Workplace The Pay Gap • Women earn about 80 cents to the dollar of what men are paid. • All industrialized nations have a pay gap. • Research found that half of the gender gap is due to women choosing lower-paying careers. • The other half is due to gender discrimination and the “child-penalty” –women missing out on work experience while they care of their children. • At all ages and at all levels of education andno matter the type of work, the average manis paid more than the average woman. • Between the ages of 25 and 65, the average man who graduates from college earns abouta million dollars ($1,100,000) more than the average woman who graduates from college.
Reasons for the gender pay gap • Tracking in education • Women are more likely to work at types of • jobs that pay less. • Women professionals, such as physicians, • work fewer hours than men in same • profession. • Above factors account for about half • the pay gap • Other half may be attributed to pure gender • discrimination • Women of all races and ethnic groups earn less • than men • African American and Latino women have a • significantly lower wage gap with their male • counterparts than white and Asian women • experience.
Sexual Harassment • Unsolicited sexual advances, comments, gestures, or physical contact,made by a person in power • Traditional view makes it a personal problem • Sexual harassment is a structural matter; built into the marketplace • Sexual harassment as a social problem • Equal Employment Opportunity Commission • Used to be perceived as an exclusively female problem
Violence Against Women • Perhaps the most serious problem linked to patriarchy is men’s physical violence against women • Assault, rape and murder • In U.S., women are disproportionately victims of spousal abuse and rape • Why is violence a gender issue? • Physical aggressiveness is a key element of the cultural definitions of masculinity. • Gender violence is not so much sexual as an expression of power • When it comes to serious violence, the most dangerous setting for women is the home
Symbolic Interactionism and Violence Against Women • Sociologists also use symbolic interactionism to understand gendered violence • In American culture, men learn machismo • Males are surrounded with models of violence
Homosexuality • Homosexual behavior • Sexual relations between people of the same sex • Homosexuality • Sexual orientation involving an attraction or preference for people of one’s own sex • Americans more tolerant of those practicing full-time homosexuality • Women are more likely to favor the legality of homosexual relations • Hate crimes • Ordinary crimes motivated by dislike or hatred of the victim’s personal characteristics • Homosexuality is a social problem because of subjective concerns.
Social Policy: Constructing Problems & Defining Solutions • Conservatives focus on the value of families • While most conservatives are willing to support women in the workplace and even in positions of national leadership, most also support policies to strengthen families • Believe that gender equality may weaken the family • Believe that heterosexual gender distinctions are natural and desirable and ought to be encouraged • Liberals focus on the pursuit of equality and speak out in favor of the slow but steady progress that’s been made to expand rights and opportunities • Families have changed because they need 2 working adults to make ends meet • Men must take greater responsibility for the home and children • The earning power of women must be raised • Radicals argue that basic change must come to the economic and political system. • The target of basic change is family • Some radical feminists promote the elimination of gender itself • Insist that society is so discriminatory that it must be restructured
Gender Roles in the Future Women are living longer, bearing fewer children, becoming better educated, and entering the labor force in greater numbers than at any other time in history. If these trends continue, certain gender role changes should occur. Barriers Coming Down Activities Degendered New Consciousness
Gender Inequality More progress toward gender equality has occurred in developed countries than in developing countries, and gender parity remains a future goal around the world, despite some progress over the last two decades.
