Advanced Issues on Classes

1. Advanced Issues on Classes Part 3 Reference variables (Tapestry pp.581, Horton 176 – 178) Const-reference variables (Horton 176 – 178) object sharing: sharing an object/variable among several objects using reference variables and pointers (Tapestry 578 – 583) Static data members in classes (Tapestry 484 – 486, Horton 322 – 325)

2. Overview In this part, you are going to see how different instances of a class (p1 and p2 below) can share the same variable (board, below). ChessBoard board; ChessPiece p1, p2; Normally, if we add a variable, board, to the ChessPiece class, there will be a different board for each ChessPiece . There are two solutions for this, one is to use what is called reference variables(this is very easy in term of its use, but slightly more tricky in some other aspects) or to use pointers (this is slightly more complicated to use, but very easy to understand and there are no issues to consider).

3. Reference Variables It is possible to refer one variable using another name (i.e. creating an alias) using reference variables. Syntax Type&ref_variable_name=existing_variable; int x; int &xr = x; No new memory allocation is done for xr. x and xr refer to the same memory locations after the reference variable declaration. Thus when we say x, it means xr and when we say xr, it is also x. This does not seem very useful now, but will be so when you want to share some data among multiple instances of a class (see shared-unshared toy example). There are some other useful cases as well. • But before that we will see more on reference variables. x xr

4. Reference Variables Example (refvar. cpp) double a = 3.1415927; double &b = a; b = 89; cout << "a contains: " << a << endl; // Displays ? The value of reference b cannot be changed after its declaration. • For example, a few lines further, you cannot write: double c = 2.71; &b = c; • expecting now bisc.This is a syntax error (let's see this at refvar.cpp) • Everything is said on the declaration line of b:Reference b and variable a are bound together, not to be ever separated. What about the following addition to the end of code above? Does it change the values a, b, c? double c = 2.71; b = c; • Let's see the answer and another special case on the code (refvar.cpp) a contains: 89

5. Reference VariablesandPointers So, are reference variables same as pointers? • Similar concepts but reference variables are NOT pointers. • There are differences. Pointers need to be dereferenced using the * operator to reach the memory location, but reference variables are already dereferenced. int * ptr = new int; * ptr = 10; cout << *ptr; Pointers are more flexible to use. Pointers need not be initialized at declaration (they can be initialized later). Moreover, pointers can be reinitialized to show different locations throughout the program. However, reference variables must be initialized at declaration to an existing variable and cannot refer to another variable later.

6. Const-Reference Variables Reference variables can be constant, by putting the const keyword before the variable declaration. double x = 4.12; const double & y = x; We already said that binding between reference variable and the existing regular variable cannot change. So, what is constant here? • It is constant such that you cannot change the memory location's value by using the reference variable name. • But this does not mean that this memory location's value cannot change. • We can change it using other references (e.g. using the actual variable name) – see refvar.cpp • We cannot assign a const-reference variable to a normal reference variable double x = 4.12; const double & y = x; y = 3.5; //syntax error, const ref. var. cannot be changed x = 3.5; //legal syntax double & z = y; //syntax error, const-ref. var. cannot be assigned to a regular ref. var.

7. Reference Parameters: reminder Reference parameters are used to allow a function to modify a calling variable: #include <iostream> using namespace std; void change (double &r, double s) { r = 30; s = 40; } int main () { double k, m; k = 3; m = 4; change (k, m); cout << k << ", " << m << endl; // Displays ???? return 0; }

8. Reference Parameters: reminder Reference parameters are used to allow a function to modify a calling variable: #include <iostream> using namespace std; void change (double &r, double s) { r = 30; s = 40; } int main () { double k, m; k = 3; m = 4; change (k, m); cout << k << ", " << m << endl; // Displays 30, 4 return 0; }

9. Pointers for sharing If you want to share the same object among various instances of a class object, you must use pointers or reference variables • You should prefer reference variables, if you do the binding at the beginning and do not need to refer to another object during the program. • Pointers are easier, if you feel comfortable on how to manipulate them. One example of need of sharing is that of players (class player) sharing the same game board (class board) . We will not follow-up on this example. In the next example that we will see, kids are intended to share the same toy (e.g. same ball that each of them plays with together), but in the naive version, each of them ends up having a separate ball.

10. (Un)shared Toy– toy class (fromTapestry)Naiveversionthatdoes not actuallywork #include <iostream> #include <string> using namespace std; // This program demonstrates the use of reference variables and // pointers for sharing among class objects class Toy { public: Toy (const string& name); void Play(); // prints a message void Breaks(); // the toy breaks private: string myName; //name of toy bool isWorking; //working condition }; //constructor Toy::Toy(const string& name) : myName(name), isWorking(true) { } See sharetoy.cpp Continued on thenextpage

11. // post: toy is played with, message printed void Toy::Play() { if (isWorking) cout << "this " << myName << " is so fun :-)" << endl; else cout << "this " << myName << " is broken :-(" << endl; } void Toy::Breaks() // post: toy is broken { isWorking = false; cout <<endl<< "oops, this " << myName <<" just broke"<<endl<<endl; }

12. (Un)shared Toy – kidclass class Kid { public: Kid (const string & name, Toy & toy); void Play(); private: string myName; //name of the kid Toy myToy; //creates a local copy, this is problematic }; //constructor Kid::Kid(const string & name,Toy & toy) : myName(name),myToy(toy) { }//Equivalent to myToy = toy; void Kid::Play() // post: kid plays and talks about it { cout << "My name is " << myName << ", "; myToy.Play(); }

13. “erich” “ball” working “katie” “ball” working “erich” “ball” working “katie” “ball” working Does not work as intended int main() { //lets have a !!common!! toy Toy atoy("ball"); Kid erich("erich", atoy); Kid katie("katie", atoy); erich.Play(); katie.Play(); atoy.Breaks(); // the toy is now broken // but this information is not // conveyed to the kids erich.Play(); katie.Play(); //they don’t see that it is broken! return 0; } What Happens in Memory: “ball” working copy ---------- After atoy breaks --------- “ball” broken

14. (Un)shared toy - output • Why it did not workout? • Kidclassstore a localcopy of the Toy object • Whenwechangethestate of thesource Toy object, it did not effecttheKidclass • Basically, Kiddid not share a toy, justcloned it.

15. Solution 1: Reference Variables Similartoreferenceparameters(aliasformemoryallocatedelsewhere) referencevariablesreferstomemoryallocatedelsewhere. • makingmyToy a referencevariableavoidscreating a copywhenmyToy is initialized in theKidinitializerlist. • insteadweusetheToyobjectused in constructingtheKidobject • once a referencevariable is constructed, it cannot be reassignedtoanotherobject • a Kidobjectcannotchangetoys instancevariablesthatarereferencesmust be constructedandinitialized in initializerlists, not in the body of classconstructors

16. class Kid { public: Kid (const string & name, Toy & toy); void Play(); private: string myName; Toy & myToy; }; //the rest is the same as NAIVE version Kid::Kid(const string & name,Toy & toy) : myName(name), myToy(toy) { } . . . Samemainjustworksfine! int main() { Toy atoy("ball"); Kid erich("erich", atoy); Kid katie("katie", atoy); erich.Play(); katie.Play(); atoy.Breaks(); erich.Play(); katie.Play(); return 0; } Sharing with Reference Variables

17. Sharing with Reference Variables

18. Sharing with Pointers You can achieve the same result by using a pointer (to a toy object defined outside the class), as shown in the following slides. However, the reference variable makes sharing very simple: • Just add & at the beginning of variable name

19. Solution 2:SharingwithPointers class Kid { public: Kid (const string & name, Toy * toy);void Play(); private: string myName; Toy * myToy; }; //constructor Kid::Kid(const string & name,Toy * toy) : myName(name), myToy(toy) { } void Kid::Play() // post: kid plays and talks about it { cout << "My name is " << myName <<", "; myToy->Play(); } int main() { Toy atoy("ball"); Kid erich("erich", &atoy); Kid katie("katie", &atoy); erich.Play();katie.Play(); atoy.Breaks(); erich.Play(); katie.Play(); return 0; } atoy “ball” working myToy

20. Sharetoy.cpp (all 3 approaches) Three preprocessor identifiers NAIVE, REFVAR, POINTER are used (at any time only one of them should be defined to run the corresponding approach) The definiton of class Toy is the same in three approaches. Only Kid class and main are different. These are differentiated using preprocessor directives. Kid Class Definitions: #if defined(NAIVE) // NAIVE version of Kid class comes here . . . #elif defined(REFVAR) // Reference variable version of Kid class comes here . . . #elif defined(POINTER) // Pointer version of Kid class comes here . . . #endif

21. Sharetoy.cpp (all 3 approaches) Main function: int main() { //lets have a toy Toy atoy("ball"); #if defined(NAIVE) || defined(REFVAR) //Naive and Ref. var. versions are the same Kid erich("erich", atoy); Kid katie("katie", atoy); erich.Play(); katie.Play(); atoy.Breaks(); // the toy is now broken erich.Play(); katie.Play(); #elif defined(POINTER) Kid erich("erich", &atoy); Kid katie("katie", &atoy); erich.Play(); katie.Play(); atoy.Breaks(); // the toy is now broken erich.Play(); katie.Play(); #endif return 0; }

22. LinkStringSetIterator Class - Revisited • We have seen that the code on the left works properly when the function Current() return a reference. • string& Current() const • { return myCurrent->info; • } • How can we make use reference variables here instead of changing the function return value directly? • We may store the return value of Current() in a ref. variable and change it. • See next slide Append " seed" tothe end of the info field of each node in the list. LinkStringSet c; c.insert("watermellon"); c.insert("apricot"); LinkStringSetIteratoritr(c); for(itr.Init(); itr.HasMore(); itr.Next()) { itr.Current().append(" seed"); } cout << "afterupdate\nc : "; Print(c); after update c : apricot seed watermelon seed ---------- size = 2

23. LinkStringSetIterator Class - Revisited • The definition of Current() is still the same; it return a reference • string & Current() const • { return myCurrent->info; • } • The body of the iterator loop changes as shown on the right. LinkStringSet c; c.insert("watermellon"); c.insert("apricot"); LinkStringSetIterator itr(c); for(itr.Init(); itr.HasMore(); itr.Next()) { string &currentInfo= itr.Current(); currentInfo.append(" seed"); } cout << "after update\nc : "; Print(c); What's output? NOT IN THE BOOKS Seelinkedstringset.h and .cpp, andlinksetdemo.cpp fordetails Thinking Further: How would you use pointers instead of reference variables? after update c : apricot seed watermelon seed ---------- size = 2

24. Related: Static Data Member of the Class In certain cases, you can also use a static data member of the class that keeps its value from one construction to the next one. • When a data member is declared as static, only one copy of the data is maintained for all objects of the class. • Static data members are not part of objects of a given class type; they are separate objects. As a result, the declaration of a static data member is not considered a definition. The data member is declared in class scope, but definition is performed at file scope. You can also use static data members to count the number of instances of a class that you created by calling the constructor. The example below assigns a consecutive ID number to the class instances class User { private: int id;//id of user static int next_id; //common to all instances, but this is not a definition //this is just a prototype-like declaration public: User()//constructs user instances starting from id number 1 { id = next_id; next_id++; //assigns next id to the next instance and then increments } void print () { cout << id << endl; } }; int User::next_id = 1;//this is definition and initialization See static_data_member.cpp