The Human Trafficking in the GMS

1. The Human Trafficking in the GMS A negative impact of the economic development project

2. Greater Mekong Subregion The Asian Development Bank (ADB) started the Greater Mekong Sub-region (GMS) program in 1992 and included all of Yunnan in the PRC, Myanmar, Laos, Thailand, Cambodia, and Vietnam. Among the members of GMS, Cambodia, Laos, and Myanmar (CLM) are defined as �least developed countries� (LDC) by the United Nations and the Development Assistance Committee (DAC) of the Organization of Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD). GDP per capita of these countries are US $371, $315, and $168 respectively. The GDP per capita of Vietnam is US $483, and this is slightly larger than those of CLM. However, Vietnam is defined as another low income country by the OECD-DAC. The gross regional product (GRP) per capita of Yunnan is US $695, and the GDP per capita of Thailand is US $2,239. Thus, the three economies are relatively wealthy members of the GMS. The Asian Development Bank (ADB) started the Greater Mekong Sub-region (GMS) program in 1992 and included all of Yunnan in the PRC, Myanmar, Laos, Thailand, Cambodia, and Vietnam. Among the members of GMS, Cambodia, Laos, and Myanmar (CLM) are defined as �least developed countries� (LDC) by the United Nations and the Development Assistance Committee (DAC) of the Organization of Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD). GDP per capita of these countries are US $371, $315, and $168 respectively. The GDP per capita of Vietnam is US $483, and this is slightly larger than those of CLM. However, Vietnam is defined as another low income country by the OECD-DAC. The gross regional product (GRP) per capita of Yunnan is US $695, and the GDP per capita of Thailand is US $2,239. Thus, the three economies are relatively wealthy members of the GMS.

3. However, there is no guarantee that every city on the economic corridor that has a large population can flourish in the future. Areas of provinces, states, and prefectures are not equal. For example, the area of Shan State in Myanmar is about 1.7 billion square kilometers; Bangkok is only about 0.51 million square kilometers. The Thailand and the Vietnam economies have all parts of the three economic corridors. The populations (out of the total population) of provinces along the economic corridors in Thailand and Vietnam are 45.6% and 28.9%, respectively. Thus, the benefit from the development of the three economic corridors is considered to be large for Thailand and Vietnam. Among the economic corridors, the one that possess the largest population is the North-South. Its population is about 47,207 thousand persons and accounts for 19.2%. Looking at income level, provinces along the Southern economic corridor are more abundant in Thailand and in Vietnam. The economic effects caused by links between Ho Chi Minh City and Bangkok will be larger desspite delays in constructing bridges over the Mekong and Basak Rivers. However, there is no guarantee that every city on the economic corridor that has a large population can flourish in the future. Areas of provinces, states, and prefectures are not equal. For example, the area of Shan State in Myanmar is about 1.7 billion square kilometers; Bangkok is only about 0.51 million square kilometers. The Thailand and the Vietnam economies have all parts of the three economic corridors. The populations (out of the total population) of provinces along the economic corridors in Thailand and Vietnam are 45.6% and 28.9%, respectively. Thus, the benefit from the development of the three economic corridors is considered to be large for Thailand and Vietnam. Among the economic corridors, the one that possess the largest population is the North-South. Its population is about 47,207 thousand persons and accounts for 19.2%. Looking at income level, provinces along the Southern economic corridor are more abundant in Thailand and in Vietnam. The economic effects caused by links between Ho Chi Minh City and Bangkok will be larger desspite delays in constructing bridges over the Mekong and Basak Rivers.

4. GMS Challenges Trade- cross border trade facilitation Private sector- developing vibrant markets and strengthening private sector Poverty Reduction- achieving MDG targets Opportunities: macroeconomic and sector reforms, decentralization Infrastructure- appropriate levels to support growth and poverty reduction Opportunities: sustained inputs for infrastructure linkages, use of multi-sector/ holistic approach, transport study, power trade, information superhighway Policy and Institutional Reform- for maximizing growth and poverty reduction Opportunities: macroeconomic/ sector reforms, decentralization Economic Integration- managing economic integration Opportunities: deepening/ broadening integration, within GMS and across other regional cooperation initiatives Financial Resource Mobilization- tapping resources to fund programs Human Resources Development- managing human resource investments Opportunities: building development management capacity, training/ education exchanges

5. An oversupply of labor in CLM countries and a shortage of young labor in Thailand, combined with a difference of income level, lead people in CLM countries to migrate into Thailand. This migration, however, results in the expansion of informal sectors in Bangkok and at least in part to a hotbed of human trafficking, crime and drugs. Economic Development and the Pitfall

6. Economic Development and the Pitfall Globalisation and ICT technology may facilitate trafficking by making movements of people, information, capital and business easier and faster than before. There is no clear legal stance nor effective public policies or programmes to deal with prostitution in any of the countries. �The sex sector � is not recognized as an economic sector in official statistics, development plans or government budgets. Trafficking phenomena are not only related to the abuse and exploitation of people moving away from difficult economic situations, but also to people�s economic dreams and desires, now fuelled by global images of wealth and modernity. The economic importance of commercial sex for South-East Asian countries has grown to the extent that some researchers have proposed the recognition of the �sex sector� as a significant component of many economies.The economic importance of commercial sex for South-East Asian countries has grown to the extent that some researchers have proposed the recognition of the �sex sector� as a significant component of many economies.

7. Economic Corridor & Trafficking Patterns Destination countries for Thai workers include Singapore, Malaysia, Japan, Taiwan, many European countries and North America. Countries of origin � Cambodia � China � Lao PDR � Myanmar � Thailand � Vietnam Transit countries � Cambodia � Myanmar � Thailand Countries of destination � Cambodia � China � Thailand � Singapore � Taiwan � Malaysia � Hong Kong � Japan, Europe, Russia Trafficking also takes place internally Trafficking Networks in GMS are widespread range from the small and informal to highly organized crime syndicates are primarily of Asian origin, though there are growing links with organized networks in countries of Eastern Europe and the former Soviet Republics, and countries of South America operate transnationally, either by living in or establishing local partnerships in source countries often follow migration routes and patterns use blatant force such as kidnapping or rape, but also less obvious inducements and deception that exploit an individual�s vulnerability to achieve consent are often closely linked to other sectors of the national or international crime industry, such as loan sharking, gambling, illicit trade in narcotics and arms and corporate extortion operate underground and are often out of the reach of the legal system or closely connected to power centres are adept at avoiding detection and arrest by control and manipulation of those trafficked and complicity of public officials are facilitated by advances in transport, information and communications technologies, particularly the internet Destination countries for Thai workers include Singapore, Malaysia, Japan, Taiwan, many European countries and North America. Countries of origin � Cambodia � China � Lao PDR � Myanmar � Thailand � Vietnam Transit countries � Cambodia � Myanmar � Thailand Countries of destination � Cambodia � China � Thailand � Singapore � Taiwan � Malaysia � Hong Kong � Japan, Europe, Russia Trafficking also takes place internally Trafficking Networks in GMS are widespread range from the small and informal to highly organized crime syndicates are primarily of Asian origin, though there are growing links with organized networks in countries of Eastern Europe and the former Soviet Republics, and countries of South America operate transnationally, either by living in or establishing local partnerships in source countries often follow migration routes and patterns use blatant force such as kidnapping or rape, but also less obvious inducements and deception that exploit an individual�s vulnerability to achieve consent are often closely linked to other sectors of the national or international crime industry, such as loan sharking, gambling, illicit trade in narcotics and arms and corporate extortion operate underground and are often out of the reach of the legal system or closely connected to power centres are adept at avoiding detection and arrest by control and manipulation of those trafficked and complicity of public officials are facilitated by advances in transport, information and communications technologies, particularly the internet

8. Who is trafficked? -prototype Females held in a domestic home, brothel and sweat-shop. Males trafficked for factory, plantation, construction work and fishing boat. The Majority is migrants from CLM and China. Young children from Cambodia to beg or sell flowers on the streets of Thailand Children from Vietnam to Cambodia to fill a large international and local market for commercial sexual exploitation of children. Young women in search of marriage from Vietnam and Myanmar, being Channeled into China. Chinese, Myanmar and Vietnamese boys stolen to be sold to adoptive parents. Cambodian babies abducted and adopted Females held in a domestic home, brothel and sweat-shop. With at least some then being drawn into the sex trade. Males trafficked for factory, plantation, construction work and fishing boat. Where there is growing anecdotal evidence of extremely long working days, forced amphetamine use, and even murder of those who are sick or otherwise unable to work. The Majority is migrants from CLM and China. Young children from Cambodia to beg or sell flowers on the streets of Thailand Children from Vietnam to Cambodia to fill a large international and local market for commercial sexual exploitation of children. Young women in search of marriage from Vietnam and Myanmar, being Channeled into China. Where there is a shortage of women in rural areas, to find themselves sold as domestic slaves or into the sex trade. Chinese, Myanmar and Vietnamese boys stolen to be sold to adoptive parents. Cambodian babies abducted and adopted To unsusupecting couples from the West who pay up to US$20,000.Females held in a domestic home, brothel and sweat-shop. With at least some then being drawn into the sex trade. Males trafficked for factory, plantation, construction work and fishing boat. Where there is growing anecdotal evidence of extremely long working days, forced amphetamine use, and even murder of those who are sick or otherwise unable to work. The Majority is migrants from CLM and China. Young children from Cambodia to beg or sell flowers on the streets of Thailand Children from Vietnam to Cambodia to fill a large international and local market for commercial sexual exploitation of children. Young women in search of marriage from Vietnam and Myanmar, being Channeled into China. Where there is a shortage of women in rural areas, to find themselves sold as domestic slaves or into the sex trade. Chinese, Myanmar and Vietnamese boys stolen to be sold to adoptive parents. Cambodian babies abducted and adopted To unsusupecting couples from the West who pay up to US$20,000.

9. Definition - ambiguous It is difficult to provide estimates of the scale of trafficking with any precision because of its illegal and clandestine nature. The lack of unambiguous definition of trafficking adds to the problem. Statistics about trafficking vary widely and are frequently unreliable, seldom indicating the methods by which the data were gathered. Consequently, any analysis of the magnitude of trafficking is inevitably based on �guestimates� Consequently, any analysis of the magnitude of trafficking is inevitably based on �guestimates�

10. Here are some commonly-quoted statistics which highlight the magnitude of the problem: One third of the world�s trafficking in women and children takes place within and out of South-East Asia (UNICEF) An estimated 200,000 to 250,000 people out of the area every year. (UNICEF) According to the U.S State Department, there are an estimated 225,000 women and children who have been trafficked in Southeast Asia. ILO-IPEC estimate that 80,000 women and children have been trafficked to Thailand for the sex trade since 1990. The highest numbers are from Myanmar, followed by the Yunnan Province of China, and Laos. According to ILO-IPEC, an estimated 500-1000 Cambodian children work as child beggars in Thailand. However, Here are some commonly-quoted statistics which highlight the magnitude of the problem: One third of the world�s trafficking in women and children takes place within and out of South-East Asia and An estimated 200,000 to 250,000 people are trafficked out of the area every year. (UNICEF) In Thailand, the Ministry of Public Health survey recorded 65,000 prostitutes in 1997 but Unofficial sources suggest a much higher figure, ranging from 800,000 up to two million prostitutes working in Thailand, of whom between 30,000 and 80,000 are estimated to be undocumented migrants, primarily Burmese. There are also tens of thousands of Thai and Filipino prostitutes working in other countries. The prostitutes are mainly women, but there are also male, transvestite and child prostitutes. The number of Burmese migrants in Thai brothels is estimated to increase by 10.000 each year. (the UNESCO Trafficking Project) If we include the owners, managers, pimps and other employees of the sex establishments, the related entertainment industry and some segments of the tourism industry, the number of workers earning a living directly or indirectly from prostitution would be several millions. A 1997 study by the Ministry of Public Health of Thailand found that of a total of 104,262 workers in some 7,759 establishments where sexual services could be obtained, only 64,886 were sex workers; the rest were support staff including cleaners, waitresses, cashiers, parking valets and security guards. End Child Exploitation Stop the Traffic! p.13 UNICEF July 2003 in No Status: Migration, Trafficking &Exploitation of women in Thailand 2004, p.13 in http:// www.phrusa.org/campaigns/aids/pdf/nostatus.pdf 5.12.2004.However, Here are some commonly-quoted statistics which highlight the magnitude of the problem: One third of the world�s trafficking in women and children takes place within and out of South-East Asia and An estimated 200,000 to 250,000 people are trafficked out of the area every year. (UNICEF) In Thailand, the Ministry of Public Health survey recorded 65,000 prostitutes in 1997 but Unofficial sources suggest a much higher figure, ranging from 800,000 up to two million prostitutes working in Thailand, of whom between 30,000 and 80,000 are estimated to be undocumented migrants, primarily Burmese. There are also tens of thousands of Thai and Filipino prostitutes working in other countries. The prostitutes are mainly women, but there are also male, transvestite and child prostitutes. The number of Burmese migrants in Thai brothels is estimated to increase by 10.000 each year. (the UNESCO Trafficking Project) If we include the owners, managers, pimps and other employees of the sex establishments, the related entertainment industry and some segments of the tourism industry, the number of workers earning a living directly or indirectly from prostitution would be several millions. A 1997 study by the Ministry of Public Health of Thailand found that of a total of 104,262 workers in some 7,759 establishments where sexual services could be obtained, only 64,886 were sex workers; the rest were support staff including cleaners, waitresses, cashiers, parking valets and security guards. End Child Exploitation Stop the Traffic! p.13 UNICEF July 2003 in No Status: Migration, Trafficking &Exploitation of women in Thailand 2004, p.13 in http:// www.phrusa.org/campaigns/aids/pdf/nostatus.pdf 5.12.2004.

11. The Ministry of Public Health survey, Thailand, recorded 65,000 prostitutes in 1997 Unofficial sources put the figure between 800,000 up to two million prostitutes working in Thailand, of whom between 30,000 and 80,000 are estimated to be undocumented migrants, primarily Burmese Women travel as entertainers, strippers and dancers, and as such may not be accounted for at all. One woman may also be trafficked several times and into several countries. The number of workers directly or indirectly from prostitution would be several millions. A 1997 study by the Ministry of Public Health of Thailand found that of a total of 104,262 workers in some 7,759 establishments where sexual services could be obtained, only 64,886 were sex workers; the rest were support staff including cleaners, waitresses, cashiers, parking valets and security guards.

12. Trafficking Networks In GMS From the small and informal to highly organized crime syndicates Use blatant force Are often closely linked to other sectors of the national or international crime industry The economic importance of commercial sex for South-East Asia has grown The recognition of the �sex sector� as a significant component of many economies. Linkages to other types of legitimate economic activity and enterprises such as bars, restaurants, hotels, karaoke bars and beauty parlous. Operate underground and are often out of the reach of the legal system or closely connected to power centres range from the small and informal to highly organized crime syndicates operate transnationally, either by living in or establishing local partnerships in source countries use blatant force such as kidnapping or rape, but also less obvious inducements and deception that exploit an individual�s vulnerability to achieve consent are often closely linked to other sectors of the national or international crime industry, such as loan sharking, gambling, illicit trade in narcotics and arms and corporate extortion The economic importance of commercial sex for South-East Asia has grown to the extent that some researchers have proposed the recognition of the �sex sector� as a significant component of many economies. Although prostitution is illegal, it is has highly organised structures, and linkages to other types of legitimate economic activity and enterprises such as bars, restaurants, hotels, karaoke bars and beauty parlous. The scale of the phenomena, and the related corruption and involvement of the authorities, make the protection of victims very difficult. operate underground and are often out of the reach of the legal system or closely connected to power centres are adept at avoiding detection and arrest by control and manipulation of those trafficked and complicity of public officials range from the small and informal to highly organized crime syndicates operate transnationally, either by living in or establishing local partnerships in source countries use blatant force such as kidnapping or rape, but also less obvious inducements and deception that exploit an individual�s vulnerability to achieve consent are often closely linked to other sectors of the national or international crime industry, such as loan sharking, gambling, illicit trade in narcotics and arms and corporate extortion The economic importance of commercial sex for South-East Asia has grown to the extent that some researchers have proposed the recognition of the �sex sector� as a significant component of many economies. Although prostitution is illegal, it is has highly organised structures, and linkages to other types of legitimate economic activity and enterprises such as bars, restaurants, hotels, karaoke bars and beauty parlous. The scale of the phenomena, and the related corruption and involvement of the authorities, make the protection of victims very difficult. operate underground and are often out of the reach of the legal system or closely connected to power centres are adept at avoiding detection and arrest by control and manipulation of those trafficked and complicity of public officials

13. Case: Sex as an economic sector Prostitution in Thailand has grown so rapidly during the past years that �sex� as a business has assumed the dimensions of a commercial sector, contributing enormously to employment and national income in the region. (ILO) In Thailand, remittances from women in the sex industry to their families in rural areas exceed the budgets of the government development programmes. Tourism generates at least some $3 billion annually, and sex is one of its most valuable sub-sectors, directly or indirectly employing between 800,000 and two million people throughout the country. (Thailand) Brothels are lucrative businesses, which often tie the local officials and authorities into their own activities. Local police, pimps, recruiters, hotel-owners, bartenders and taxi-drivers all benefit from the business. Thailand is the main destination and transit country in the whole of the Mekong region, and it has the longest history of trafficking in human beings. According to the International Labour Organisation, prostitution in Thailand and Southeast Asia has grown so rapidly during the past years that �sex� as a business has assumed the dimensions of a commercial sector, contributing enormously to employment and national income in the region. In Thailand, remittances from women in the sex industry to their families in rural areas exceed the budgets of the government development programmes. It is estimated that Thai women working in the sex sector in urban centres transfer some USD 300 million annually to rural families. Tourism is the most important economic sector in Thailand today and it is strongly supported by the government. , as tourism has now become a major source of foreign exchange, exceeding the export of rice and textiles. Tourism generates at least some $3 billion annually, and sex is one of its most valuable sub-sectors, directly or indirectly employing between 800,000 and two million people throughout the country. Brothels are lucrative businesses, which often tie the local officials and authorities into their own activities. Local police, pimps, recruiters, hotel-owners, bartenders and taxi-drivers all benefit from the business. Thailand is the main destination and transit country in the whole of the Mekong region, and it has the longest history of trafficking in human beings. According to the International Labour Organisation, prostitution in Thailand and Southeast Asia has grown so rapidly during the past years that �sex� as a business has assumed the dimensions of a commercial sector, contributing enormously to employment and national income in the region. In Thailand, remittances from women in the sex industry to their families in rural areas exceed the budgets of the government development programmes. It is estimated that Thai women working in the sex sector in urban centres transfer some USD 300 million annually to rural families. Tourism is the most important economic sector in Thailand today and it is strongly supported by the government. , as tourism has now become a major source of foreign exchange, exceeding the export of rice and textiles. Tourism generates at least some $3 billion annually, and sex is one of its most valuable sub-sectors, directly or indirectly employing between 800,000 and two million people throughout the country. Brothels are lucrative businesses, which often tie the local officials and authorities into their own activities. Local police, pimps, recruiters, hotel-owners, bartenders and taxi-drivers all benefit from the business.

14. In spite of the recent growth of the national economy, prostitution has not decreased, but increased, as the macro-economic policy that has been adopted supports the expansion of the sex sector. There is also a strong connection with other economic policies and rapid urban development. The informal sector has grown rapidly following the economic crisis in 1997. It currently occupies 72 per cent of the total Thai labour force, and contributes 44 per cent to the GDP. (Country Paper: Thailand 2004 ) Case: Sex as an economic sector The economic transition from agriculture to export-oriented industry, the process of urbanisation, and the simultaneous impoverishment and decline of sources of income in the rural areas have resulted in massive labour migration from the countryside to the main urban areas. This flow from rural to urban areas also involves women and girls and the members of ethnic minorities. Immigration and refugee policy, and consequently the situation of Burmese refugees, asylum seekers and migrants in Thailand, is a critical contributing factor with regard to the trafficking problem. The economic transition from agriculture to export-oriented industry, the process of urbanisation, and the simultaneous impoverishment and decline of sources of income in the rural areas have resulted in massive labour migration from the countryside to the main urban areas. This flow from rural to urban areas also involves women and girls and the members of ethnic minorities. Immigration and refugee policy, and consequently the situation of Burmese refugees, asylum seekers and migrants in Thailand, is a critical contributing factor with regard to the trafficking problem.

15. The high levels of corruption are some of the biggest challenges in combating trafficking. Thai brothels often function under the protection of the local police. In many cases, the police are partners of pimps and of the owners of brothels to which vulnerable groups lacking legal status are likely to be driven. Case: Sex as an economic sector The high levels of corruption, involvement of officials and practical impunity are some of the biggest challenges in combating trafficking. There is evidence of police and border authorities� corruptibility and their involvement in the onward trafficking of migrants and refugees in Thailand. Thai brothels often function under the protection of the local police. In many cases, the police are partners of pimps and of the owners of brothels to which vulnerable groups lacking legal status are likely to be driven. The practice of impunity means that none of these officials or authorities (provincial and border police) are punished. The same police who raid the brothels and punish the women are also to be found among the brothels� clients. The high levels of corruption, involvement of officials and practical impunity are some of the biggest challenges in combating trafficking. There is evidence of police and border authorities� corruptibility and their involvement in the onward trafficking of migrants and refugees in Thailand. Thai brothels often function under the protection of the local police. In many cases, the police are partners of pimps and of the owners of brothels to which vulnerable groups lacking legal status are likely to be driven. The practice of impunity means that none of these officials or authorities (provincial and border police) are punished. The same police who raid the brothels and punish the women are also to be found among the brothels� clients.

16. Root Causes Effective anti-trafficking action should always be based on a context-specific approach. There is a link between trafficking and the worsening of women�s economic situation. Trafficking is related to the gendered impacts of macro-economic policies or crises, increasing women�s economic vulnerability and destroying their capacities for coping. Both cases also involve large regional economic inequalities between countries. PRSP are unable to integrate gender aspects effectively into the analysis, let alone into actual practice. The ILO has suggested that more attention should be paid to the macro-economic policies that may indirectly contribute to the growth of the sex sector. Economic policies that are based on the promotion of tourism, rural-urban migration and export-oriented industrialisation should be assessed also from the point of view human rights, not only from a financial perspective. effective anti-trafficking action should always be based on a context-specific approach, and it should recognise the diversity of the circumstances where trafficking takes place. The emphasis of anti-trafficking measures, therefore, should be put on addressing the root causes, which are economic and structural in nature, not only on trying to deal with the consequences of the problem. there is a link between trafficking and the worsening of women�s economic situation. trafficking is related to the gendered impacts of macro-economic policies or crises, increasing women�s economic vulnerability and destroying their capacities for coping. Both cases also involve large regional economic inequalities between countries. the ILO has suggested that more attention should be paid to the macro-economic policies that may indirectly contribute to the growth of the sex sector. Economic policies that are based on the promotion of tourism, rural-urban migration and export-oriented industrialisation should be assessed also from the point of view human rights, not only from a financial perspective. It is important to acknowledge that the introduction of legal measures to combat trafficking is not sufficient by itself, but has to be complemented with effective efforts to support women�s incomes and female job-creation in the countries of origin. effective anti-trafficking action should always be based on a context-specific approach, and it should recognise the diversity of the circumstances where trafficking takes place. The emphasis of anti-trafficking measures, therefore, should be put on addressing the root causes, which are economic and structural in nature, not only on trying to deal with the consequences of the problem. there is a link between trafficking and the worsening of women�s economic situation. trafficking is related to the gendered impacts of macro-economic policies or crises, increasing women�s economic vulnerability and destroying their capacities for coping. Both cases also involve large regional economic inequalities between countries. the ILO has suggested that more attention should be paid to the macro-economic policies that may indirectly contribute to the growth of the sex sector. Economic policies that are based on the promotion of tourism, rural-urban migration and export-oriented industrialisation should be assessed also from the point of view human rights, not only from a financial perspective. It is important to acknowledge that the introduction of legal measures to combat trafficking is not sufficient by itself, but has to be complemented with effective efforts to support women�s incomes and female job-creation in the countries of origin.

17. Clear definitions are required Despite the linkages between trafficking and prostitution, trafficking is an independent phenomenon. These phenomena are inter-related, but treating them as extreme and opposite ends of a continuum. The essential aspect of trafficking is the extent to which a person has lost control over his or her own situation or destiny, not his or her consent as such. Third-party involvement usually increases gradually during the process, and the extent of a person�s capacity for self-determination correspondingly decreases. Since trafficking in human beings is a complicated phenomenon with a number of relevant factors contributing or promoting it, every case should be treated individually, taking a human rights approach as a starting point for analysis. Despite the linkages between trafficking and prostitution, trafficking is an independent phenomenon. We suggest acknowledging that these phenomena are inter-related, but treating them as extreme and opposite ends of a continuum, in which prostitution is seen as something more freely and independently chosen, but trafficking as something more forced. The essential aspect of trafficking is, however, the extent to which a person has lost control over his or her own situation or destiny, not his or her consent as such. Third-party involvement usually increases gradually during the process, and the extent of a person�s capacity for self-determination correspondingly decreases. In the most aggravated cases, the victims are almost totally stripped of their capacity for self-determination. Since trafficking in human beings is a complicated phenomenon with a number of relevant factors contributing or promoting it, every case should be treated individually, taking a human rights approach as a starting point for analysis. Despite the linkages between trafficking and prostitution, trafficking is an independent phenomenon. We suggest acknowledging that these phenomena are inter-related, but treating them as extreme and opposite ends of a continuum, in which prostitution is seen as something more freely and independently chosen, but trafficking as something more forced. The essential aspect of trafficking is, however, the extent to which a person has lost control over his or her own situation or destiny, not his or her consent as such. Third-party involvement usually increases gradually during the process, and the extent of a person�s capacity for self-determination correspondingly decreases. In the most aggravated cases, the victims are almost totally stripped of their capacity for self-determination. Since trafficking in human beings is a complicated phenomenon with a number of relevant factors contributing or promoting it, every case should be treated individually, taking a human rights approach as a starting point for analysis.

18. Anti-trafficking measures One of the most important issues related to the definition and the prevention of trafficking is the identification and recognition of the victim as a victim of trafficking. Protecting the human rights of trafficked persons should be at the heart of all antitrafficking measures. More attention should be paid to trafficking for the purpose of labour exploitation. Both the trafficking and the smuggling of people are aspects of migration, the root causes of which lie in economic and social inequalities between countries and regions. Protective measures for victims and their families could include a wide range of different specialised services, including (temporary) residence permits, that address the specific needs of each individual. Although trafficking in women for the purpose of sexual exploitation is the most visible form of trafficking, infrastructure to combat trafficking should be established on the basis of a broad definition of trafficking which takes into account all purposes of exploitation and increases the ability to respond rapidly to possible new forms of trafficking.[1] More attention should be paid to trafficking for the purpose of labour exploitation. Trafficking, smuggling and migration are separate, but inter-related issues. The majority of the people trafficked are migrant workers. Both the trafficking and the smuggling of people are aspects of migration, the root causes of which lie in economic and social inequalities between countries and regions. If channels for legal migration were created, people would be able to migrate without turning to traffickers or smugglers, and would also be in a better position to defend their labour rights in the destination country.[2] [1] See OSCE National Referral Mechanisms: Joining Efforts to Protect the Rights of Trafficked Persons. A Practical Handbook, 2004. See also Reference Guide For Anti-trafficking Legislative Review with particular emphasis on South Eastern Europe, OSCE/ODIHR, 2001. [2] Combating trafficking through the protection of migrants� human rights 2003, p. 3, 13.Protective measures for victims and their families could include a wide range of different specialised services, including (temporary) residence permits, that address the specific needs of each individual. Although trafficking in women for the purpose of sexual exploitation is the most visible form of trafficking, infrastructure to combat trafficking should be established on the basis of a broad definition of trafficking which takes into account all purposes of exploitation and increases the ability to respond rapidly to possible new forms of trafficking.[1] More attention should be paid to trafficking for the purpose of labour exploitation. Trafficking, smuggling and migration are separate, but inter-related issues. The majority of the people trafficked are migrant workers. Both the trafficking and the smuggling of people are aspects of migration, the root causes of which lie in economic and social inequalities between countries and regions. If channels for legal migration were created, people would be able to migrate without turning to traffickers or smugglers, and would also be in a better position to defend their labour rights in the destination country.[2] [1] See OSCE National Referral Mechanisms: Joining Efforts to Protect the Rights of Trafficked Persons. A Practical Handbook, 2004. See also Reference Guide For Anti-trafficking Legislative Review with particular emphasis on South Eastern Europe, OSCE/ODIHR, 2001. [2] Combating trafficking through the protection of migrants� human rights 2003, p. 3, 13.

19. Further Research: what is next? More investigation of actual condition of trafficking in the region including Japan Study of qualitative and quantitative affection of ADB�s GMS economic projects on the trafficking market in the South Asia. Study of strategic interventions in regional and global development processes Interventions include preventive activities, protection and assistance, return and resettlement, and research and advocacy. Current status of Independent actions and partnerships between governments, NGOs, UN organizations, donors, research institutions, community-based groups and concerned individuals. Japan�s response to the situation.

20. Thank you for your attention!