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Crime Science

Crime Science. Marianne Junger. [Cla09] R. V. Clarke. Crime science. In E. McLaughlin and T. Newburn , editors, Handbook of Criminal Theory, pages 271-283. Sage, London, 2009. http:// www.sagepub.com/books/Book228876. Contents. Origins of crime Theories of Crime Science

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Crime Science

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  1. Crime Science Marianne Junger [Cla09] R. V. Clarke. Crime science. In E. McLaughlin and T. Newburn, editors, Handbook of Criminal Theory, pages 271-283. Sage, London, 2009. http://www.sagepub.com/books/Book228876

  2. Contents • Origins of crime • Theories of Crime Science • Situational Crime Prevention Cyber-crime Science

  3. Origins of crime Two essential and different factors • Person factors (criminality) • Situations (crime) Cyber-crime Science

  4. Person factors Crime is ‘natural behaviour’ • Everybody has the potential • Some more than others… • How can we know? • Indirect evidence: • observe animals • observe babies Cyber-crime Science

  5. Physical Aggression of Toddlers [Ake07] C. van Aken, M. Junger, M. Verhoeven, M. A. G. van Aken, and M. Dekovic. Externalizing behaviors and minor unintentional injuries in toddlers: Common risk factors? Journal of Pediatric Psychology, 32(2):230-244, Mar 2007. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/jpepsy/jsj118 Cyber-crime Science

  6. Malleability of behaviour is limited [Hec06] J. J. Heckman. Skill formation and the economics of investing in disadvantaged children. Science, 312(5782):1900-1902, 2006. http://dx.doi.org/10.1038/428598a Cyber-crime Science

  7. Theories of crime science [Cla09] R. V. Clarke. Crime science. In E. McLaughlin and T. Newburn, editors, Handbook of Criminal Theory, pages 271-283. Sage, London, 2009. http://www.sagepub.com/books/Book228876 Cyber-crime Science

  8. Crime science- summary • Incident oriented • Purpose: understand the modus operandi of crime • Goal: prevention • Basis: Rational choice, Opportunity theory & Routine Activities • Means: Situational crime prevention • Practice: Measure effectiveness and efficiency Cyber-crime Science

  9. Theoretical foundation • Routine Activity Approach (RAT) • crime occurs when a potential offender meets with a suitable target in the absence of a capable guardian. • Crime Pattern theory • crime is concentrated at particular places (hot spots), targets the same victims repeatedly, (repeat victimisation), and selects hot products. • Rational choice perspective • criminals make a bounded rational choice judging risks and benefits. Crime Opp. Every day life Society Cyber-crime Science

  10. Rational choice perspective • Criminality is goal oriented behaviour • Based on a rational decision • Crime specific • Crime scripts • In sociology, psychology, economy, biology, public health etc [Cor08] D. B. Cornish and R. V. Clarke. The rational choice perspective. In R. Wortley and L. Mazerolle, editors, Environmental Criminology and Crime Analysis, pages 21-47. Willan Publishing, Uffculme, UK, 2008. http://www.willanpublishing.co.uk/cgi-bin/indexer?product=9781843922803 Cyber-crime Science

  11. RAT - Opportunity theory • Crime is the outcome of the interaction between dispositions and situations • Crime is the product of choice • Crime specific focus essential for effective prevention • Crime is heavily concentrated • Crime can be reduced by environmental changes [Fel98] M. Felson and R. V. Clarke. Opportunity makes the thief: Practical theory for crime prevention. Police Research Series Paper 98, Home Office, Policing and Reducing Crime Unit, London, 1998. http://www.homeoffice.gov.uk/rds/prgpdfs/fprs98.pdf Cyber-crime Science

  12. Wealth paradox • Wealth presents opportunity • More to steal in houses • Less surveillance • More wealth hence more crime [Coh79] L. E. Cohen and M. Felson. Social change and crime rate trends: A routine activity approach. American Sociological Review, 44(4):588-608, Aug 1979. http://www.jstor.org/pss/2094589 Cyber-crime Science

  13. Crime triangle Cyber-crime Science

  14. Situational approach • Used in many disciplines/fields • Economy • Social psychology, e.g., marketing • Traffic • Public health Cyber-crime Science

  15. Opportunity correlates [Pea04] H. Pearson. Public health: The demon drink. Nature, 428:598-600, Apr 2004. http://dx.doi.org/10.1038/428598a Cyber-crime Science

  16. Situational crime prevention [Cla08] R. V. Clarke. Situational crime prevention. In R. Wortley and L. Mazerolle, editors, Environmental Criminology and Crime Analysis, pages 178-194. Willan Publishing, London, Jun 2008. http://www.routledge.com/9781843922803

  17. Situational crime prevention • Based on the theories of Crime Science • A standard methodology based on experiments and action research. • A set of opportunity-reducing techniques. • A body of evaluated practice including studies of displacement. Cyber-crime Science

  18. Experiments and action Research 4 2,3 5 1 [Lay04] G. Laycock. The UK car theft index: An example of government leverage. In Understanding and Preventing Car Theft, Crime Prevention Studies 17, pages 25-44. Criminal Justice Press, Monsey, New York, 2004 Cyber-crime Science

  19. Opportunity reducing techniques • Increase effort • Time, skills • Increase risks • Of getting caught, failure, loosing resources • Reduce rewards • So that the offender has less benefits after the crime • Reduce provocation • So that the offender is less tempted to start • Remove excuses • So that the offender cannot justify the crime Cyber-crime Science

  20. Practical examples Cyber-crime Science

  21. Increase effort: alley gating [Bow04a] K. J. Bowers, S. D. Johnson, and A. F. G. Hirschfield. Closing off opportunities for crime: An evaluation of Alley-Gating. European J. on Criminal Policy and Research, 10(4):285-308, Sep 2004. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s10610-005-5502-0 Cyber-crime Science

  22. Increase risks: surveillance Cyber-crime Science

  23. Reduce rewards: RFID tags Cyber-crime Science

  24. Reduce provocations: Flyers [Kei08] K. Keizer, S. Lindenberg, and L. Steg. The spreading of disorder. Science, 322(5908):1681-1685, Dec 2008. http://dx.doi.org/10.1126/science.1161405 Cyber-crime Science

  25. Remove excuses: Eyes Pounds paid per litre of milk consumed as a function of week and image type. [Bat06] M. Bateson, D. Nettle, and G. Roberts. Cues of being watched enhance cooperation in a real-world setting. Biology Letters, 2(3):412-414, Sep 2006. http://dx.doi.org/10.1098/rsbl.2006.0509 Cyber-crime Science

  26. Cyber-crime Science

  27. Displacement? • Most important issue! • Detoxification of gas in UK households [Cla88b] R. V. Clarke and P. Mayhew. The British gas suicide story and its criminological implications. Crime and Justice, 10:79-116, 1988. http://www.jstor.org/stable/1147403 Cyber-crime Science

  28. Displacement? • Detoxification of gas in UK households [Cla88b] R. V. Clarke and P. Mayhew. The British gas suicide story and its criminological implications. Crime and Justice, 10:79-116, 1988. http://www.jstor.org/stable/1147403 Cyber-crime Science

  29. Diffusion of benefits • Diffusion of benefits: • Examples • Alley gating… • Tagging of expensive electronic products in shops • Meta-analysis* • 25% diffusion of benefits, • 50% nothing at all • 25% displacement – never complete [Gue09] R. T. Guerette and K. J. Bowers. Assessing the extent of crime displacement and diffusion of benefits: a review of situational crime prevention evaluations. Criminology, 47(4):1331-1368, Nov 2009. http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1745-9125.2009.00177.x. Cyber-crime Science

  30. Discussion • This was ‘normal’ crime…. • See for a large collection of examples http://www.popcenter.org/ • What about cyber opportunities? Cyber-crime Science

  31. Conclusions • Origins of crime: interaction “person by situation” • Importance of situations : wealth, alcohol • Theories of crime science: RA, RCM, opportunities • A standard methodology: experiments/policies. • A set of opportunity-reducing techniques: this helps! • A body of evaluated practice including studies of displacement. Cyber-crime Science

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