AP Test Review Unit Two

1. AP Test ReviewUnit Two The Reformations and Religious Wars Ca. 1517-1648

2. The Protestant Reformation • Interconnected to the renaissance and spurred on by rise of the merchant/middle class, the growth of individualism, and more activity in Biblical scholarship from original texts. • Urged a return to a stronger and less ritualistic Christian faith

3. Underlying Causes: Religious • 14th – 15th century Church Crises • Babylonian Captivity • Great Schism • Failure of the Conciliar Movement • Renaissance Popes “Secularism”

4. Underlying Causes: Religious • Corruption within the Catholic Church • Simony: sale of church offices • Pluralism: holding more than one office • Absenteeism: an official not present within his or her benefice • Nepotism: favor of family members • Immoral behavior of the clergy • Clerical Ignorance • Sale of indulgences

5. Underlying Causes: More Religious • Early Catholic Reformation • John Wyclif– Lollards, Bible as sole authority • John Hus – Vernacular translation of Bible • Thomas A Kempis– Imitation of Christ • Brethren of Common Life (Lay mysticism) • Erasmus, In Praise of Folly • Christian Humanism

6. Underlying Causes: Intellectual • Renaissance Humanism • Liberal arts education could be used to root out superstition and ignorance • Textual criticism of humanist thinkers undermined Catholic authority

7. Underlying Causes: Political • Many political rulers saw the Church as a foreign (Italian) imposition on their growing political control and hated the fact that the church had its own courts, owned much land, and was exempt from local taxes. • N. German princes saw religious reform as an excuse to pursue selfish desires to break away from the HRE.

8. Underlying Causes: Economic • Papal taxes were a hated burden on European nations and the rulers, the merchants, and the peasants all resented the payments. • Thought they were getting very little for their money. • Popes, Cardinals, and bishops lived lavishly at the expense of other Europeans.

9. Martin Luther & the 95 Theses • Pope Leo X authorized Johan Tetzel to sell indulgences to make money for the new St. Peter’s • “As soon as the coin in the coffer rings, the soul from purgatory springs.” • October 31,1517: Martin Luther posted the 95 Theses on the door of the church in Wittenberg • Criticized the selling of indulgences and questioned the pope’s authority to do so! • The printing press soon spread his ideas all over Germany.

10. Challenging Church and Imperial Authority • Leipzig Debates with Johann Eck in 1520 • Denied the infallibility of the pope • Excommunication in 1520 • Diet of Worms in 1521 • “Here I stand, I can do no other.” • Luther outlawed from HRE as a heretic! • Protected by Elector Frederick of Saxony

11. Luther’s Theology of Reform • Salvation through faith alone • Good works follow faith, but only faith brings salvation! • Bible was the sole authority! • Translation into vernacular • Priesthood of All Believers • Rejected monasticism and clerical celibacy • Only two sacraments were valid • Baptism and Communion • Consubstantiation, not Transubstantiation • Real presence, but not actual transformation of material • Argued for a primitive separation of church from state

12. Spread and Survival of Lutheranism • North German princes convert to Lutheranism • Political motivated • Denmark and Sweden become Lutheran • German Peasants Revolts (1524-5) • Used Lutheran teachings to demand an end to serfdom • Luther refused to support the Peasants – he was sympathetic to their complaints but believed in secular obedience • Charles V neglect of the HRE (1521-1530) • At war with the Valois in Italy • At war with the Turks in Eastern Europe

13. Religious Warfare • 1530: council called at Augsburg by Charles V to reconcile Catholic and Lutheran differences. • The Augsburg confession was the Lutheran position, but it was rejected by the Catholics. • Protestants formed the Schmalkaldic League for protection. • 1546: War broke out between N. Protestant states and the Catholic HRE.

14. The Peace of Augsburg • After a series of stalemates, the Peace of Augsburg was signed in 1555. • “ciusregio, eiusreligio” • only Lutheranism and Catholicism were considered to be legal religions • provided religious freedom only to the princes: everyone else was forced to abide by the religion of the ruler. • *** denied Calivinism • Along with the Habsburg-Valois Wars, this prevents Charles V from unifying Germany!

15. The Spread of Protestantism • Anabaptism – Adult Baptism • “Left wing” of Protestant Reformation • Emphasized complete separation of church from state • Seizure and tragic fall of Munster in 1532 • Institution of polygamy • Long term impact of Anabaptists • Mennonites and Quakers • Both advocated pacifism

16. Zwingli (1484 - 1531) • Swiss Reformer, who established a theocracy in Zurich • Removed all artwork from churches • Ended the veneration of the saints • Similarities with Luther • “justification by faith alone” • Bible is final authority, not the pope • Break with Luther • Colloquy of Marburg • Rejected “Real Presence” for a symbolic view of Eucharist

17. John Calvin (1509 - 1564) • Frenchman who was forced into exile in Geneva when his protestant ideas came into conflict with the catholic monarchy in France. • Main ideas were found in his book: Institutes of the Christian Religion. • Founder of Calvinism, the theological foundation of the religious practice of Puritanism.

18. Major Tenets of Calvinism • Bible is the final authority • Predestination: God has already decided who will be saved (“the elect”) and who will not be (“the damned”). • The elect will uphold God’s teachings and lead exemplary lives. Their good works are only an outward sign of their salvation. • People are saved by the grace of God, not by faith and not by good works. • Purely symbolic communion

19. Theocracy in Geneva • New center of Reformation Europe by 1540 • Militant puritanism develops in Geneva • Establishment of Protestant Work Ethic • Hard work pleased God, and financial success was an outward sign of election • Church structure is lay-dominated • Consistory – Lay elders fused religious law and secular law • Michael Servetus is key example of the fusion of church and state in Geneva • Executed for denying the Trinity

20. Spread of Calvinism • Calvin’s ideas spread to other locations and became popular in Europe: • France: Huguenots • Sets stage for the French Religious Wars • Scotland: John Knox founded the Presbyterian church • Sets stage for Charles I’s campaign against the Scots in late 1630s • England: Puritanism • Set stage for colonial expansion to New England as well as English Civil War • Holland: Dutch Reformed Church • Set stage for Dutch Revolt as well as Dutch economic success

21. The English Reformation • English humanists and pre-reformers (such as Huss and Wycliffe) called for an end to the materialism of the church. • William Tyndale translates the Bible into English • Many English nobles strongly resented papal dues and church controls. • England’s remote location gave it more independence in religious matters.

22. Henry VIII & the Reformation from Above • Henry sends Cardinal Wolsey to get him an annulment from the pope. The pope refused.(Charles V’s troops had sacked Rome in 1527, and the pope was under the control of Charles). • Henry arrested Wolsey for treason and appointed Thomas Cranmer as the new Archbishop of Canterbury. • Cranmer annulled the marriage.

23. Establishment of the Church of England • 1534: Act of Supremacy: king replaces the pope as head of the English church and monasteries dissolved. • Church lands were confiscated • 1534: Act of Succession: Guaranteed the ability of Anne Boleyn’s offspring to succeed Henry as legitimate heirs to the throne • 1539: Statute of the Six Articles • Anglican Church was Catholic in practice but not in name!!!

24. English Reformation Continued • Edward I • Church becomes more protestant in practice • Many Lutheran theological tenets are adopted in the new Book of Common Prayer written by Cranmer • Mary I – “Bloody Mary” • Revoked the legislation of Henry and Edward • Attempted to re-impose Catholicism • Execution of hundreds of Protestants

25. “Elizabethan Settlement” • Elizabeth I – Politique • 1559 – Act of Supremacy • Recognizes Elizabeth as head of the church • 1563 – Thirty-Nine Articles • Established a middle ground between Catholics and Protestants within the Church of England • All citizens required to attend church • Outward obedience required; inner conscience could not be regulated

26. The Catholic Counter-Reformation • The Council of Trent (1545 - 1563): Established by Pope Paul III • Response to the gains of Protestantism as well as the critics within the Church • Unsuccessful in stopping the reformation, but it is utilized to improve church discipline through a reaffirmation of existing doctrine

27. Components of Trent • Confirmation of: • Equal validity of scripture, tradition, and writings of Church fathers • Faith and good works were both necessary for salvation • Seven sacraments – including transubstantiation • Monasticism, clerical celibacy, and purgatory • Established the Index of Forbidden Books • Reforms: • Ended sale of indulgences • Ended simony • Reformed bishoprics • Seminaries established to end ignorance

28. Formation of the Jesuits • Ignatius Loyola • Absolute and militant obedience to Catholic doctrine and beliefs, but combined these ideas with the need for humanist education. • Goals • Reform the church through education • Spread gospel through missionary activity • Defeat Protestantism • Achievements • Oversaw the Spanish and Italian Inquisitions • Contained Protestantism to Northern Europe • Introduced Christianity to East Asia

29. Spain’s Catholic Crusade • Philip II (1556-98) • Philip inherited a nation blessed with great wealth in the form of gold and silver from the New World. • Goal: Reestablish Christendom! • Result: He squandered his inheritance by: • spending huge amounts of resources by fighting religious wars to try to halt the spread of the Reformation; • purchasing luxury items from other nations to keep the Spanish nobility happy.

30. Spain’s “Golden Age” • El Escorial • Philip’s new royal palace symbolized Spain’s political dominance and commitment to Catholicism • Battle of Lepanto (1571) • Spanish vessels defeated the Turkish navy off the coast of Greece • Ended the Ottoman threat in the Mediterranean

31. The Dutch Revolt • Under the leadership of William of Orange (William the Silent), the Calvinist Dutch provinces united with the Catholic Dutch provinces to assert their independence from Spanish control • Pacification of Ghent (1579) • Causes: The Calvinist provinces resented the Inquisition and all of the provinces resented the payment of taxes to Spain and high grain prices.

32. The Dutch, continued • Philip, a intense and determined man, sent the Duke of Alva to stop the revolt. • His actions included the Council of Bloodand the sacking of Antwerp under Alexander Farnese. • Following the sacking of Antwerp, the Catholic provinces left the Dutch alliance and joined with the Spanish. • The Catholic provinces eventually became Belgium, while the Calvinist ones became the United Provinces of the Netherlands (Dutch Republic).

33. Spain vs England (Late 1500s) • Relations between the two nations had been deteriorating since the death of Mary I • Elizabeth reversed Mary’s Catholic policies and refused Philip’s hand in marriage • Great rivalry existed between Spain and England over control of the seas and control of new world wealth(Francis Drake and the Sea Dogs) • Execution of Mary Queen of Scots after several attempts failed to overthrow Elizabeth • Elizabeth supported the Dutch Republic! • Philip decided to attack England in an attempt to restore Catholicism to the nation in 1588.

34. The Spanish Armada (1588) • The English decisively defeated the Spanish Armada in 1588, thus preventing any Spanish acquisition of England. • Navy lay in ruins due to the Protestant Wind • Results: • This defeat forever weakened Spain and led to its decline in the next century. • Signaled the rise of England as a world naval power

35. The Dutch Republic • Secured de facto independence from Spain by the late 1500’s. This was made official in 1648 with the Treaty of Westphalia. • Golden Age of the Dutch Republic: early 1600’s due to political stability, economic prosperity, and cultural achievements.

36. THE FRENCH CIVIL WARS • Although France had only a small minority of Huguenots (approx. 9% in 1560), they had far more power than their numbers, because most protestants were upper middle class persons or members of the nobility. • Many of these Huguenots became Calvinist as an excuse to take a stand against the power of the Valois family. • Result: A resurgence of feudal disorder!

37. Francis I and Henry II • Both of these kings were concerned about the growing Protestant minority and actively persecuted the Calvinists. • Unfortunately, Henry II died while his sons were quite young, leaving Catherine de Medici as the queen mother. Catherine had a difficult time dealing with the various political and religious factions in France and her religious policies were disastrous for the nation.

38. Political and Religious Problems in France • Three political factions were competing to control France by 1560: • Bourbons (Protestants) • Guises (Catholics) • Chatellions (Protestants) • Religious war broke out in 1562. Catherine would switch sides, for a time supporting the Protestants, then the Catholics, etc.

39. St. Bartholomew’s Day Massacre • Cause: Marriage of Valois princess to Henry of Navarre • Designed to reconcile differences between Catholic government and Protestant nobles • St. Bartholomew’s Day massacre in 1572 • Coligny (Prot. advisor) and several thousand Parisian Protestants were killed by members of the Guise family at the orders of Catherine • This again ignited more warfare and led France into the “War of the Three Henry’s.”

40. The War of the Three Henry’s • In this war, England helped the Protestant forces, and Spain helped the Catholics. • King Henry III (Cath.) and Henry of Navarre (Prot.) vs. Henry Guise (Cath.) • Henry III was killed, and Henry of Navarre won a series of military victories which established him as King Henry IV and created a new ruling dynasty in France--the Bourbons.

41. King Henry IV (1589 - 1610) • When he took over, France was in a state of religious and political disorder, and the central government was severely weakened. • Henry rebuilt a devastated France with the help of his advisor, the Duke of Sully. • The Politique • 1593: Henry became Catholic (“Paris is worth a mass”).

42. Achievements of Henry IV • 1598: Edict of Nantes: granted religious toleration to Protestants (1st legal recognition of Calvinism in any nation). • Catholicism was still the national religion (The religion of most Frenchmen) • Protestants were given a number of liberties: • Free to worship privately (in select cities) • Access to universityand public office • Right to maintain fortified towns

43. More Achievements of Henry • Strengthened the power of the monarch by weakening the power of the nobility. • Put France on a gradual course towards absolutism • Began an extensive program for economic improvements--repairing and constructing roads, bridges and harbors, reclaiming marsh lands, fostering agriculture, and repairing the bankrupt government.

44. The Thirty Years’ War (1618 - 1648) • Forever weakened the HRE and paved the way for French continental supremacy. • Approx. 1/3 of the population died and approx. 1/2 of the wealth of the German states was depleted. • This decimation set the stage for the long-term fragmentation of central Europe. • Underlying Cause: The Failure of the Peace of Augsburg!!

45. The Bohemian Phase (1618 - 1625) • Cause: Defenestration of Prague • Protestant, Frederick V of Bohemia demanded more autonomy for Bohemia from Ferdinand II (HRE) • Catholic officials thrown out a window in response to greater restrictions placed on Protestant Bohemia • The Protestant forces were decisively defeated at the Battle of White Mountain and Frederick was deposed. • Protestantism was eliminated in Bohemia

46. The Danish Phase (1625 - 1629) • Danish King Christian IV stepped up to lead the Protestants who were nearly wiped out after phase I. • The protestant forces experienced more losses at the hands of Albrecht von Wallenstein. • The Edict of Restitution forced protestants to restore to the Catholic church all lands that had been taken from it since 1552. • This was a major defeat for the Protestants.

47. The Swedish Phase (1630 - 1635) • Swedish King GustavusAdolphus and his army landed in Germany, starting phase III of the war. • Liberated Protestant territory lost during the Danish phase of the war • Cardinal Richelieu of Catholic France supported Gustavus and the Protestant forces in an attempt to control the power of the Hapsburgs. • Result: Successful! Ended any real hope of the Habsburgs imposing Catholicism on the HRE

48. Swedish Phase, continued • Many early protestant victories, but Gustavus was killed in the battle of Luetzen in 1632. • Ferdinand had Wallenstein assassinated in 1634. • Thus, this phase of the war was a costly one for both sides. • But with the death of Adolphus, France feared a Catholic revival during the next stage of the war!

49. The French, or International, Phase (1635 - 1648) • France sent troops to support the Protestant princes of the HRE • Just as in the Habsburg-Valois Wars • Cath. France + Prot. Sweden vs. Cath. HRE + Prot. Denmark + Cath. Spain • As one can see, this was no longer a religious war…it was purely political!!!! • 1645: Denmark surrendered • 1648: Germans called for a truce.

50. Treaty of Westphalia (1648) • E – End of Wars of Religion • F – France emerges as #1 in Europe • C – Calvinism added to Peace of Augsburg • H – HRE made irrelevant • I – Independence of Dutch and Swiss • P – Prussia emerges as a new power