Memory: famous quote by William James (c1890)

1. Memory: famous quote by William James (c1890) “To constantly remember everything all the time, would probably be worse than remembering nothing at all” Concept: Primary & Secondary Memory

2. A typical definition of memory: “Systemised storage of information based on experience in which these events are processed and are stored ready for use and this information can be utilised for past, present or future”. (Take notes under following headings) • Past………………………. • Present………………….. • Future……………………

3. What has memory to do with making sense of other people? Amygdala Frontal Cortex Hippocampus Cognitive Neuroscience

4. Memory (1.1) The Multi-Store Model (Atkinson and Shiffrin, 1968) Key terms / concepts:

5. The Multi-Store Model cont… Serial flow of information (processes): Encode > Store > Retrieve (Draw as a ‘Box & arrow’ Diagram) Concepts: Cognitive Psychology Receiving information: ‘The Cocktail Party Effect’

6. The Multi-Store Model cont… Store Long –term Store Sensory Store Short –term Store Attention Recall Task: Explain how the model works:

7. MSM: Characteristics of the stores (and how we know) Murdock (1962)

8. How do we know (2): Murdock (1962) 1 3 Total Recall First words Middle words Last words 2 LTM Store STM Store Rehearsal Primacy Effect Recency Effect Do AMRC p10 textbook. Copy above, define ‘Primacy & Recency Effect’ and explain what is going on at points 1/2/3 and how does this support the model?

9. Concept: Schemata (pl. schema) • One of the most important concepts in cognitive psychology: “A complex bundle of information or associations stored in the brain which cognitively represents something, often in a vague sort of way” It can be: an object, stored general knowledge, how to do something or an event.

10. You have never seen these particular things before, so how do you know that they are all windows except one?

11. (1.2) Other explanations of memory:Bartlett (1932)A Study of Reconstructive Memory Fredrick Bartlett created the expression: ‘RECONSTRUCTIVE MEMORY’

12. (1.2) Another explanation of memory…… • Craik and Lockhart (1972) “Levels of Processing” (Looks like) (Sounds like) (what it means) Surface >>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>> Deep Which is best for recall?

13. How do we know about levels of brain activity?... Brain scanning • CAT • PET • MRI • fMRI

14. (1.3) Why we forget? • Memory is a great mystery. It can involve all our senses (vision, sound, smell etc). We can have vivid memories from years and years ago. Yet we can also forget something from literally seconds earlier.

15. Activity Discuss the following: • Give some examples of things you regularly forget such as names etc. • The main reasons why you forget these things • Techniques you have used to try and improve your memory

16. Displacement and Decay in STM • It’s important to look at some of the reasons why we lose information • Displacement: items currently in STM are pushed out to make room for incoming new ones • Decay: the memory trace disappears over time so the memory fades away

17. Displacement and Decay in STM • According to the decay theory, info is forgotten because of time rather than displacement

18. Displacement and Decay in LTM • Decay: Material can be lost in LTM through disuse • Skills that have not been used may fade away but other skills that require motor memory seem to stick

19. (1.3) Why we forget: Interference Define the following: • Interference • Retroactive interference* (old<<<<new) • Proactive interference* (old>>>>new)

20. Interference Memory traces are disrupted or obscured by other info 2 types: Retroactive: when new info interferes with old info e.g phone numbers Proactive: when an old memory trace disrupts new info e.g. ringing your old number

21. Baddeley and Hitch (1977) • Asked rugby players to recall the name of the teams they had played against during the previous season • Due to numerous reasons some players had taken part in more games than others

22. Baddeley and Hitch (1977) • Two games back to some players may mean two weeks ago to some but for others it could mean 4 – 5 weeks ago • Some players had taken part in more games • This allowed B and H to find out if time was a factor or the no of intervening games

23. Baddeley and Hitch (1977) • The critical factor was the number of games played during that time period • So basically forgetting seemed to be due to interference and not decay

24. Retrieval Failure in LTM • Forgetting occurs because the correct cues are not available • Brown (1991) reviewed 25 years of research into the tip of the tongue phenomenon • People can generally recall the 1st letter of the target name or word 50-70% of the time

25. Context dependant retrieval • Psychologists have been interested in the effects of the learning environment on recall • It has been found that environmental differences need to be substantial before any significant difference in recall performance can be demonstrated • It has been shown that imagining the original environment can be helpful

26. Smith (1970) • Smith gave participants a list of 80 words to learn while sitting in a distinctive basement room. • The following day he tested some participants in the same basement room and others in a fifth floor room with different décor and atmosphere.

27. Smith (1970) • Average recall for the basement group was 18 items • Those in the 5th floor averaged 12 items • A 3rd group were tested in the upstairs room and instructed to imagine themselves in the basement room. These students averaged 17 items

28. State dependent retrieval • Evidence that the internal environment has an affect on retrieval • Goodwin (1969) found that heavy drinkers who learn things in a drunken state are more likely to recall them in a similar state