Chapter 1: Introduction to Development Psychology and Its Research Strategies Dr. Pelaez

1. Chapter 1: Introduction to Development Psychology and Its Research Strategies Dr. Pelaez What is development? -Continuities and changes in the individual that happen between conception and death Developmentalists- any professional who seeks to understand the process of development

2. What influences our development? Nature (maturation) Aging Process Our genetic make-up Nurture (learning) Observation and interactions with our parents and teachers and others in our environment Our experiences Many developmental changes are due to the interaction between both nature and nurture.

3. Overview of Periods of the Life Span

4. Developmentalists pursue 3 goals. Description- to delineate how human beings change over time both normatively and ideographically Normative Development: common developmental patterns Ideographic Development: individual variations

5. Developmentalists goals continued 2. Explain-what they observe to determine why: Individuals develop as they typically do Why there are individual differences in development 3. Optimize development- by applying what they have observed in order to help individuals develop in a positive direction

6. Characteristics of development A continual & Cumulative Process The one constant is change The changes that transpire at each major phase of life may affect future development Holistic Process Changes in one aspect of development- whether it is physical, mental, social, and emotional-are interrelated and effect each other

7. Characteristics of development Cont�d Plasticity The ability to change as a result of positive and negative life experiences Historical & Cultural Development is influenced by both societal changes and cultural characteristics

8. Historical Perspectives in Development Childhood in premodern times Children had few rights Children's lives were not always valued Toward modern-day views of childhood Parents were discouraged from abusing their children Parents were encouraged to treat their children with warmth and affection

9. Early childhood philosophies Original Sin-children are inherently selfish egoists who must be restrained by society (Thomas Hobbes). Children are seen as passive to societal influences Innate Purity-children are born with a sense of right and wrong that is often corrupted by society (Jean Jacques Rousseau) Children are seen as active

10. Early childhood philosophies cont�d Tabula rasa (blank slate)- children are: Neither inherently good or bad Their development is solely due to worldly experiences (John Locke) seen as passive to societal influences

11. Children as subjects: Baby biographies- Investigators from the late 19th century observed their own children and published the data obtained The data obtained was used to answer questions regarding development Different baby biographies focused on different and incomparable components of development

12. Origins of a Science of development G. Stanley Hall- founder of developmental psychology and first to conceptualize the phase of adolescence Hall was the first to use questionnaires to explore how children think and to formulate his theory Theory: a set of concepts/propositions that allow the theorist to explain a phenomenon Hypothesis: an educated guess about future events based on theories, which is then tested via additional data collection

13. Research Methods: Developmental Psychology The Scientific Method- Value about the pursuit of knowledge which emphasizes the importance of investigator objectivity in deciding the merits of their theorizing Protects against flawed reasoning

14. Gathering data: Measures need to be: Reliable: yields consistent results, both over time and across observers Valid: measures what it is supposed to measure

15. Self �Report Methods Interviews & Questionnaires: Structured interview/questionnaire- Treats each participant equally for comparison purposes Cons Can�t be used with very young children Participants my lie Pros Generates large amount of data in short time frame

16. The clinical method: An interview where a participant�s response to each successive question determines what the examiner will ask next Cons Makes it difficult to compare participants to each other allows for examiner subjectivity Pros Yields large amounts of information in a short period of time Yields rich and more specific information

17. Observational methods: Naturalistic observation: Observing people in their every-day surroundings Pros Could be easily used with infants and toddlers Yields information on how people actually behave in their common surroundings Cons Some behaviors occur so infrequently or are so inappropriate that they will less likely be witnessed by an observer Too many events might be occurring at the same time Observer influence Participants react to an observer�s presence by behaving in unusual ways Methods of minimizing observer influence: Videotaping Observing for a period of time before actually taking data so that the participant could become accustomed to the observer Methods of minimizing observer influence: Videotaping Observing for a period of time before actually taking data so that the participant could become accustomed to the observer

18. Observational methods cont�d: Time sampling Procedure where the investigators records the frequency with which individuals display particular behaviors during the brief time interval that each participant is observed Structured observation: The behavior of interest is cued and observed in the laboratory Pros Good for observing behaviors that occur infrequently or are inappropriate Standardization Cons Participants may not act similarly in a lab when compared to their every-day setting

19. Case Studies: The investigator gathers extensive information on one participant and tests developmental hypotheses by analyzing the events of the person�s life history. Exp. Baby biographies Cons Difficult to compare cases because data is not structured Lack of external validity

20. Ethnography: The investigator tries to understand the values, traditions, and social process of a culture or subculture by living with its members. Pros Yields rich information on a specific culture Gives information on the developmental challenges of different minority groups Cons Very subjective Lacks generalizability

21. Psychophysiological Methods: Method that explores the relationship between physiological processes and aspects of children�s physical, cognitive, social, or emotional responses and development. Examples of psychophysilogical processes: Heart rate Brain wave activity Pros Useful for assessing biological underpinnings of development Useful for communicating the emotions of infants Cons Cannot communicate with assurance what participants feel The effects on physiological responses could be due to other variables

22. Detecting Relationships Correlational Design-Yields information about the relationship between two or more variables of interest without research intervention Pros Estimates the strength and direction of relationships among variables in the natural environment via a correlation coefficient Cons Does not determine cause-and-effect relationships

23. Experimental Design: Permit a precise assessment of the cause-and-effect relationship that may exist between two variables This design in employs: Manipulation of the independent variable Experimental control Random assignment Pros Determines causation Cons May lack generalizability An experimental research design is one that could be used to find cause and effect relationships between variables. Here, a researcher manipulates an aspect of the participant�s environment (independent variable) and measure the effects it had on their behavior (dependent variable). Here the researcher employs experimental control to try to eliminate confounding variables as much as possible in order to ascertain that the changes in the dependent variable were due to the manipulations of the independent variable. Research control could be achieved via random assignment, where each participant has an equal opportunity of being in the control or experimental group. An experimental research design is one that could be used to find cause and effect relationships between variables. Here, a researcher manipulates an aspect of the participant�s environment (independent variable) and measure the effects it had on their behavior (dependent variable). Here the researcher employs experimental control to try to eliminate confounding variables as much as possible in order to ascertain that the changes in the dependent variable were due to the manipulations of the independent variable. Research control could be achieved via random assignment, where each participant has an equal opportunity of being in the control or experimental group.

24. Quasi Experiment: Gathers information on individuals who experience a natural manipulation of their environment Pros Permits the study of the impact of natural events or other difficult experiences Provides strong cause-and-effects clues Cons Lacks experimental control due to ethical reasons

25. Designs for Studying Development Cross-Sectional Design- subjects from different cohorts are studied at the same point in time strengths demonstrates age differences taps a bit into developmental trends practical in regards to cost and time limitations cohort effects Does not provide information development Cohort effect - age-related difference among cohorts that is attributable to cultural/historical differences in cohorts� growing-up experiences rather than to true developmental change.Cohort effect - age-related difference among cohorts that is attributable to cultural/historical differences in cohorts� growing-up experiences rather than to true developmental change.

26. Longitudinal Design Observes people of one cohort repeatedly over a period of a couple of months to a lifetime Strengths provides information on development can reveal links between early experiences and latter outcomes shows similarities and differences in individual development limitations practice effects may be time consuming and expensive, selective attrition cross-generalization nonrepresentative sample Practice effect - changes in participants� natural responses as a result of repeated testing. Selective attrition - nonrandom loss of participants during a study, which results in a nonrepresentative sample. Nonrepresentative sample - a subgroup that differs in important ways from the larger group (or population) to which it belongs. Cross-generational problem - the fact that long-term changes in the environment may limit conclusions of a longitudinal project to that generation of children who were growing up while the study was in progress.Practice effect - changes in participants� natural responses as a result of repeated testing. Selective attrition - nonrandom loss of participants during a study, which results in a nonrepresentative sample. Nonrepresentative sample - a subgroup that differs in important ways from the larger group (or population) to which it belongs. Cross-generational problem - the fact that long-term changes in the environment may limit conclusions of a longitudinal project to that generation of children who were growing up while the study was in progress.

27. Sequential Design Combines both the cross-sectional and longitudinal designs by observing different cohorts repeatedly over time Strengths detects true developmental changes Allows us to compare the developmental of different cohorts less costly and time consuming than the longitudinal design Limitations More costly and time consuming than the cross-sectional design Limited external validity

28. Cross-Cultural Comparisons Study that compares the behavior and/or development of people from different cultural or subcultural backgrounds Guards against the overgeneralization of research findings Detects whether there are true universal developmental changes Seek differences in development

29. Ethical Considerations in Developmental Research Informed consent Benefits-to-risk ratio Confidentiality Protection from harm Informed consent - the right of research participants to receive an explanation, in language they can understand, all aspects of research that may affect their willingness to participate. benefits-to-risks ratio is a comparison of the possible benefits of a study for advancing knowledge and optimizing life conditions versus its cost to participants in terms or inconvenience and possible harm. Confidentiality - the right of participants to concealment of their identity with respect to the data that they provide. Protection from harm - the right of research participants to be protected from physical or psychological harm.Informed consent - the right of research participants to receive an explanation, in language they can understand, all aspects of research that may affect their willingness to participate. benefits-to-risks ratio is a comparison of the possible benefits of a study for advancing knowledge and optimizing life conditions versus its cost to participants in terms or inconvenience and possible harm. Confidentiality - the right of participants to concealment of their identity with respect to the data that they provide. Protection from harm - the right of research participants to be protected from physical or psychological harm.