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Lecture # 18

Lecture # 18. Nonregular languages. Nonregular languages. The language that cannot be expressed by any regular expression is called a Nonregular language . The languages PALINDROME and PRIME are the examples of nonregular languages.

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Lecture # 18

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  1. Lecture # 18

  2. Nonregular languages

  3. Nonregular languages • The language that cannot be expressed by any regular expression is called a Nonregular language. • The languages PALINDROME and PRIME are the examples of nonregular languages. • Note: It is to be noted that a nonregular language, by Kleene’s theorem, can’t be accepted by any FA or TG.

  4. Example • Consider the language L = {Λ, ab, aabb, aaabbb, …} i.e. {an bn : n=0,1,2,3,…} • Suppose, it is required to prove that this language is nonregular. Let, contrary, L be a regular language then by Kleene’s theorem it must be accepted by an FA, say, F. Since every FA has finite number of states then the language L (being infinite) accepted by F must have words of length more than the number of states. Which shows that, F must contain a circuit.

  5. Example Cont…. • For the sake of convenience suppose that F has 10 states. Consider the word a9 b9 from the language L and let the path traced by this word be shown as under.

  6. Example Cont…. • But, looping the circuit generated by the states 3,4,6,5,3 with a-edges once more, F also accepts the word a9+4 b9, while a13 b9 is not a word in L. It may also be observed that, because of the circuit discussed above, F also accepts the words a9 (a4)mb9, m = 1,2,3, … • Moreover, there is another circuit generated by the states 9,10,9. Including the possibility of looping this circuit, F accepts the words a9 (a4)m b9 (b2)nwhere m,n=0,1,2,3,…(m and n not being 0 simultaneously ).Which shows that F accepts words that are not belonging to L.

  7. Example Cont…. • Similarly for finding FAs accepting other words from L, they will also accept the words which do not belong to L. • Thus there is no FA which accepts the language L. which shows, by Kleene’s theorem, that the language L can’t be expressed by any regular expression. • It may be noted that apparently an bn seems to be a regular expression of L, but in fact it is not.

  8. Context Free Grammar (CFG) • The high level language is converted into assembly language codes by a program called compiler. • The compiler that takes the user’s programs as its inputs and prints out an equivalent program written in assembly language. • Like spoken languages, high level languages for computer have also, certain grammar. But in case of computers, the grammatical rules, don’t involve the meaning of the words.

  9. CFG continued … • It can be noted that the grammatical rules which involve the meaning of words are called Semantics, while those don’t involve the meaning of the words are called Syntactics. e.g. in English language, it can not be written “ Buildings sing ”, while in computer language one number is as good as another. e.g. X = B + 10, X = B + 999 • Following is a remark

  10. Remark • In general, the rules of computer language grammar, are all syntactic and not semantic. • A law of grammar is in reality a suggestion for possible substitutions.

  11. CFG terminologies • Terminals: The symbols that can’t be replaced by anything are called terminals. • Non-Terminals: The symbols that must be replaced by other things are called non-terminals. • Productions: The grammatical rules are often called productions.

  12. CFG CFG is a collection of the followings • An alphabet ∑ of letters called terminals from which the strings are formed, that will be the words of the language. • A set of symbols called non-terminals, one of which is S, stands for “start here”. • A finite set of productions of the form non-terminal  finite string of terminals and /or non-terminals. Following is a note in this regard

  13. Note • The terminals are designated by small letters, while the non-terminals are designated by capital letters. • There is at least one production that has the non-terminal S as its left side.

  14. Context Free Language (CFL) • The language generated by CFG is called Context Free Language (CFL). • Example ∑ = {a} Productions: • S a S • S Λ • Applying production (1) six times and then production (2) once, the word aaaaaa is generated as

  15. Example Cont…. S  a S  aa S  aaa S  aaaa S  aaaaa S  aaaaaa S  aaaaaa S = aaaaaa

  16. Example continued … • a can be generated applying prod. (1) once and then prod. (2), aa can be generated applying prod. (1) twice and then prod. (2) and so on. • This shows that the grammar defines the language expressed by a*.

  17. Example • ∑ = {a} Productions: • SSS • Sa • SΛ This grammar also defines the language expressed by a*. • Note: Λ has a special status. If for a certain non-terminal N, there may be a production N Λ. This simply means that N can be deleted when it comes in the working string.

  18. Example ∑ = {a, b} Productions: • SX • SY • X Λ • YaY • YbY • Ya • Yb

  19. Example continued … • All words of this language are of either X-type or of Y-type. i.e. while generating a word the first production used is SX or SY. • The words of X-type give only Λ, while the words of Y-type are words of finite strings of a’s or b’s or bothi.e. (a+b)+. • Thus the language defined is expressed by (a+b)*.

  20. Example ∑ = {a, b} Productions: • SaS • SbS • Sa • Sb • S Λ This grammar also defines the language expressed by (a+b)*.

  21. Example ∑ = {a, b} Productions: • SXaaX • XaX • XbX • XΛ This grammar defines the language expressed by (a+b)*aa(a+b)*.

  22. Example ∑ = {a, b} Productions: • S  SS • S  XS • S Λ • S  YSY • X  aa • X  bb • Y  ab • Y  ba This grammar generates EVEN-EVEN language

  23. Example ∑ = {a, b} • S aB • S bA • A  a • A aS • A bAA • B  b • B bS • B aBB This grammar generates the language EQUAL(The language of strings, with number of a’s equal to number of b’s).

  24. Note • It is to be noted that if the same non-terminal have more than one productions, it can be written in single line e.g. S aS, S bS, S Λcan be written as S aS|bS| Λ • It may also be noted that the productions S  SS| Λ always defines the language which is closed w.r.t. concatenationi.e. the language expressed by RE of type r*. • It may also be noted that the production S  SS defines the language expressed by r+.

  25. Example • Consider the following CFG ∑ = {a, b} Productions: • S  YXY • Y  aY | bY | Λ • X  bbb • It can be observed that, using prod.2, Y generates Λ. Y generates a. Y generates b. Y also generates all the combinations of a and b. thus Y generates the strings generated by (a+b)*. It may also be observed that the above CFG generates the language expressed by (a+b)*bbb(a+b)*. Following are four words generated by given CFG

  26. Example continued … S  YXY bYbbbaY  bΛbbbabY bbbbabbY bbbbabbaY bbbbabbaΛ = bbbbabba S  YXY aYbbbΛ abYbbb abΛbbb = abbbb S  YXY  aYbbbΛ  abYbbb  abΛbbb = abbbb S  YXY bYbbbaY  bΛbbbaΛ = bbbba

  27. Example • Consider the following CFG ∑ = {a, b} • S  SS | XaXaX | Λ • X bX| Λ • It can be observed that, using prod.2, X generates Λ. X generates any number of b’s. Thus X generates the strings generated by b*. It may also be observed that the above CFG generates the language expressed by (b*ab*ab*)*.

  28. Example • Consider the following CFG ∑ = {a, b} • S aSa | bSb | a | b | Λ • The above CFG generates the language PALINDROME. • It may be noted that the CFG S aSa | bSb | a | b generates the language NON-NULLPALINDROME.

  29. Thank You…

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