MH-8:Making War More Lethal

1. MH-8:Making War More Lethal

2. New Technologies, Institutions, & IdeasStrategic Overview • Late 19th Century – New Imperialism in West grows: • Scramble for Empire – Africa, Asia, LATAM: • Competition & conflict emerges as a result; • West controls 85% all Lands by 1914; • Industrialization accelerates & expands: • Impact: advanced technology in West; • Weapons technology increases West’s killing power; • War now more dangerous & lethal; • Central government’s power grew dramatically: • Control over $$$ resources & population; • Able to direct state’s resources to military & war

3. Impact of Late 19th Century Advances • Effect of advances & changes influenced & shaped: • West’s military tactics, techniques, concepts, & methods • Organization & equipment for control & support • Weapons advances: rifles, machine guns, artillery: • Greater increase range, accuracy, rate of fire • For artillery: accurate plunging fire (back side of hills) • Weapons now wore lethal, efficient, & effective in war • For Navy: Dreadnought superseded older Battleships: • Impact: Shaped western International Affairs & National Security Strategy • Western nations’ FP became more aggressive • (Asia, Africa, & Caribbean for US)

4. New Military & Naval Concepts & Ideas • Major impact on models & systems for waging war • Adopt successful military models of recent history • Prussian General Staff – successes studied • Austria-Prussian-1866 & Franco-Prussian Wars- 1871 • Planning, Command & Control copied & adapted • A.T. Mahan’s theory &impact on Naval Strategy: • West embraces Sea Power & Control of the Seas • Blue Water Navy sought by budding Imperialists • Build Battleships & bases to protect $$$ markets

5. Three Regional Conflicts • Three Regional Conflicts of the period: • Refutedorverified these changes in methods of war • Spanish-American War • Boer War • Russo-Japanese War • Above offered a varied mix of lessons learned • Too often with the wrong lesson drawn-Boer War • Weapons technology advances had a significant impact on tactics • Whether or not commanders were alert to them & able to adapt

6. New Weapons Technology • Impact of Industrial Revolution: • Steam & steel: • More powerful explosives; • Population increases; • Greater destruction & killing power; • Impact of various weapons technology advances: • Smokeless powder (visibility & concealment); • Artillery (potential for rapid indirect fire support): • High round trajectory • Recoil mechanism • Breech loading • Tactical impact was mixed

7. New Weapons Technology- 2 • Machine Guns: • Replaced direct fire artillery support (up front) • Artillery (plunging fire) placed to rear of infantry • Rifles: increased range, accuracy, & rate of fire: • Smokeless powder; • Magazine loaders; • Metallic cartridges; • Relevant innovations: • Telegraph & field telephone (HQ to front lines) • Command, Control, Communication (C3)

8. New Weapons Technology- Details • Machine Guns: • Before 1884: required external power source • Example=> Gatling gun • Maxim invented a self-powered gun in 1884 • Capable of firing 600 rounds per minute • Russians first to employ machine guns during the Russo-Japan War • British Vickers Maxim- more portable at 38 lbs & used WWI & II

9. Advances in Rifles • Sequence of advances in Rifles: • 1871: Mauser invents first metallic cartridge, bolt action • 1885: von Mannlicher invents clip loading magazine • 1886: French Lebel rifle invented • 1893: U.S. Army adopts .30 caliber, 5 shot Krag -Jorgensonrifle • Employed during Spanish-American War • 1903: U.S. bolt-action Springfieldrifle invented & adopted • Primary infantry weapon of WWI

10. Advances in Artillery • Technical & Tactical changes in Artillery (arty): • Firing trajectory became more rounded • Able to fire behind enemy infantry • (with tactical implications) • Recoil system develop using hydrostatic buffer & recuperator system => tactical impact? • More accurate sustained fire possible • Key examples used in WWI: • Germany’s heavy guns (Fort busters) & on ships • French 75 mm field gun- 1893- light, mobile, rapid fire • Austria-Hungary’s Howitzers

11. New Weapons Technology- Details-2 • Smokeless Powder: • Invented by Paul Vioillee (1884) • Advantages: more powerful & stable • Eliminated telltale smoke (position), cleaner & faster, more even burn • Longer range projection of round • Related Developments & Advances: • TNT- increased stability & yield of high explosives • Improved Steel- improved design strength for lighter weapons • Telegraph & telephone improved command, control, & communication (C3)

12. Prussian General Staff System • Impact Prussian victories in 1866 & 71: • Studied extensively throughout Europe & Japan: • Prussian model & composition: • Elite general staff (direct peacetime access to Kaiser) • Highly educated & trained professionals (63 to 600+) • Prussian model adapted in various ways & degrees: • Great Britain – ambivalent & stuck in British tradition • France- impressed but conflicted in attitude • United States: • Traditional American attitudes (No standing pro Army) • Congress: concerns toward professional officers • Japan- impressed & adopted Prussian model

13. Navies & Naval Theorists • Growing global (West & Japan) interest in Navies: • Competition for Empire & Social Darwinism • As expressed by Kipling’s “White Man’s Burden” • Improved capability in range, speed, & fuel efficiency • British Dreadnought replaced old BBs- now obsolete • Mahan’s theory of Sea Powerhad major impact • Naval Theorists & three contrasting views: • Admiral Aube & Jenue’Ecole – commerce raiding: • Guerre de course and the small nation & Fleet (France) • Julian Corbett & Maritime Strategy: • The real role of Navies: support the land force & a Nation’s overall grand strategy (Army’s view) • Alfred Thayer Mahan & The Influence of Sea Power:*

14. Alfred Thayer Mahan • Major impact on Western Europe, Japan, & United States • Analysis of history of sea power throughout ages • Island Nation characteristics & maritime orientation • Key purpose of Navy: Command of the Sea: • Ensure friendly commerce & trade of merchant fleet • Deny same benefits to Nation’s enemies • Key Tactical Objectiveof Fleet: • Destroy enemy’s Fleet at sea in battle (Battleships) • Mahan: “Never divide the Fleet.” • Professional Navy officer corps attitude on Mahan • More BBs means bigger Navy budget & promotions

15. Small Regional Wars – overview • Contributing Social Factors – late 19th century: • Social Darwinism applied Darwin’s theory of “Survival of the fittest” to society & Nations=> • New Imperialism (prestige & image of power) • Christian missionaries (convert native peoples) • Economic incentives (trade, markets, raw materials) • Contributing Western Technical refinements: • Screw propeller on ships (more efficient & protected) • More efficient steam engines: • Less fuel consumption • Greater ranges • Greater cargo loads • All above allowed West to dominate the “Third World”

16. Escalating Competition • Result: Competition among Western Powers grows • Industrial West easily overcame native resistance through the use of: • Gunboat Diplomacy • Threats & shows of force • Bombardments of port cities • Power projection, intervention, & invasion • Main problem main with small wars: • According to Major Caldwell: • Indigenous peoples follow their own rules & not West’s • (Guerilla warfare & indigenous insurgencies) • His unheeded advice demonstrated in 3 small wars

17. Spanish American War- Prelude • America’s control of Western Hemisphere: • Started with the Monroe Doctrine of 1823 • Growing US – Spanish tensions in Caribbean • Cuban Revolution in 1895 & negative Spanish PR • Two key events influencing American attitudes: • Spanish insult to President McKinley • Remember the Maine! • US preparations for war: • Navy mostly ready with 4 new 1st class Battleships • Army totally unprepared: • Lack of troops, training, logistics &competent HQ staff • Small unit operations experience only • No Strategic, Operational, or Tactical Plans

18. Spanish American War- Strategy & Tactics • Lack of strategic plan & tactical objectives: • Evolving strategic objectives: take Cuba, Philippines, & PR • Ambiguous tactical objectives – plan as you go • Santiago, Cuba evolves as target for the Army

19. Spanish American War- Strategic Deployment • Navy divides the Fleet • Navy deploys to Cuba & gains “control of the sea” • Traps Spanish Fleet within Santiago • General Shafter deploys with Navy to Caribbean • Conducts amphib landing • Admiral Dewey deploys to the Philippines • Boldly sails into Manila Bay at night • Destroys Spanish Fleet next morning • Captures Manila & becomes hero

20. Naval Strategic & Operational Execution • Admirals Sampson & Schley deploy as ordered off Cuba • Schley blocked AdmCervera’s Fleet within Santiago harbor • But Spanish guns blocked any further advance into the harbor • What must happen first before the Navy can proceed to finish its mission??______________________*

21. Army Operational & Tactical Execution • US Army was tasked to take out guns blocking harbor • General Shafter landed at Daiquiri (later at Siboney) • Tactical objectives: • El Caney on RF (Fortified=> US severely repulsed & stalled) • Kettle Hill & San Juan Hill (Concentrated Arty finally succeeds) • But Shafter’s troops had stalled & want to await reinforcement

22. Naval Tactical Execution • Fortunately for USN, Spain orders Cervera’s Fleet to break out • He complies with what is essentially a suicide mission • Como Schley attacks as Spanish attempt to flee; sink several ships

23. Spanish American War- Results • Costly tactical “victory” • Especially for the Army • Future President becomes a hero • With a little help from the Buffalo soldiers • Operational & strategic victory: • Cuba & Puerto Rico put under US control • Spain ejected from Western Hemisphere for good • Downside: Philippines evolved into long term occupation and bloody insurgency • American motives questioned as a result • Lessons Learned: • Numerous US tactical planning & logistics shortfalls identified (also generalship) • Good defense appeared to trump offense

24. The Second Boer War (1899-1902) • Overview: • Bloody & costly war between Britain & Boers • Conventional Phase: • British finally able to dominate but Boers would not give up • Excellent marksmen with modern rifles who refused to play by conventional rules or tactics

25. The Second Boer War (1899-1902) • Guerrilla WarPhase: • Boers waged effective GW • Conducted hit & run ambush against small separated Brit units • “Block Houses” were built along main railroad lines to protect them • Meanwhile Lord Kitchener employed harsh tactics to deal with the guerrillas & their supporters (families) • His scorched earth strategy destroyed many farms • Families of guerrillas were placed in concentration camps • Over a third imprisoned died

26. The Second Boer War - Results • British finally repress insurgency • Casualties: 8K British soldiers vs. 4K Boer fighters • Over forty thousand civilians died of disease in camps • Significance of the war: • British appreciation for marksmanship of Boers • Tactical innovations: • Indirect artillery fire (against positions on reverse slope) • Creeping barrage with advancing infantry • Employed as tactic for cover and rushing advance • Lessons not Learned: • Failure to incorporate above into future tactics (WWI) • Boer War considered unique & not relevant by generals • Russo-Japanese War seen as more likely (Euro mil. observers)

27. Russo-Japanese War (1904-05) • Origin of war: • Struggle for control of Port Arthur & Manchuria • Japan feels threatened when Russians occupy Manchuria • Russia starts RR construction to Port Arthur • Japan launches surprise attack on Russia Far East Fleet at Port Arthur • Follow up w/invasion force of four armies (shown by white arrows)

28. Russo-Japanese War- Significance • Japan’s determination displayed at Mukden: • Flanking & frontal assaults • Wave upon human wave against well entrenched defenders • Role of Prussian System & Japan’s Sea Power & (Togo’s victory at Tsushima) • Significance- War demonstrated complexities of: • Strategic & tactical surprise • Surprise attack on Russian Fleet at Port Arthur caught Russia off guard • Complex Command, control, & employment of large armies • *Tactical impact of modern weapons used in defense against offense: • Machine gun & effective indirect fire • Costly but effective frontal and f flank assaults by waves of Japanese troops (with tragic implications for WWI)

29. Russo-Japanese War’s Impact • Japan demonstrated superior operations & tactics • Especially at sea: faster, modern battleships, superior gunnery, & better trained & motivated seaman • Geo-Political & Strategic impact: • Japan gained parts of Manchuria & Sakhalin’s lower half • Eastern Power had defeated Western Power for first time: • Great prestige was gained by Japan on the world stage • Russia descended into 1905 Revolution • Wrong lesson learned: • Élancan overcome strong defense armed with machine guns & artillery

30. Assessment • Dramatic change in war’s conduct between 1871-1914: • New weapons & advanced technologies • New techniques & tactics • Command & HQ staff advancements: • Command, control, & communications improved • Strategic & logistical planning improved; • Prussian system analyzed & selectively adapted • By Japan, France, Britain, & United States • Tactics employed during Russo-Japanese War • Indication of how future wars would be fought (WWI)

31. Assessment- 2 • Major changes linked to societal changes: • Central government control & exploitation of: • Industrial Revolution; • Technological advances & R&D & weapons & equipmentinnovations • Population increase and its control & direction; • Politics to support national goals (Nationalism & propaganda) • Management & use of $$$ resources (mobilization for war) • Reforms & application of lessons learned mixed: • Small wars provided new ideas & tactics to consider • Still wrong lessons drawn from last war fought: • Offense considered superior to Defense => World War I • Morale (élan) over entrenched machine guns & arty?!!