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PSY 402. Theories of Learning Chapter 4 – Nuts and Bolts of Conditioning (Mechanisms of Classical Conditioning). Classical vs. Instrumental. The modern view is that these two types of learning involve similar learning processes, but differ in the following ways.
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PSY 402 Theories of Learning Chapter 4 – Nuts and Bolts of Conditioning (Mechanisms of Classical Conditioning)
Classical vs. Instrumental • The modern view is that these two types of learning involve similar learning processes, but differ in the following ways. • In Classical conditioning, two stimuli are associated with each other but in Instrumental conditioning, a stimulus and a response are associated. • In Classical conditioning, the response is a reflex or involuntary action but in Instrumental conditioning, the response is a voluntary, freely emitted behavior.
Pavlov’s Conditioned Reflex • Conditioning -- a stimulus that initially produces no response can acquire the ability to produce one. • Learning occurs through pairing in time and place of one stimulus with another stimulus that produces an involuntary response.
Conditioning Processes • Stimulus generalization – stimuli like the CS become able to evoke the conditioned response. • Extinction – if the UCS and CS are not paired, the CS loses its ability to produce a conditioned response. • Spontaneous recovery – an extinguished CS briefly returns but quickly goes away again.
Either is possible Stimulus substitution What is Learned? • Pavlov believed the association was between the two stimuli (tone and meat powder), not between the tone and salivation.
Conditioning Situations • Sign-tracking (autoshaping) – animals must recognize signs of food (UCS) and respond (UCR). • Pigeons pecking at key. • This is a UCR, not an operant response, because pecking behavior is specific to the food stimulus. • Eyeblink conditioning • UCR is rapid, CR is slow. • Many trials are needed (100 pairings)
3.5 Design of eyeblink conditioning experiment in rabbits (Part 1)
3.5 Results of eyeblink conditioning experiment in rabbits (Part 2)
Conditioned Emotional Responses • Fear is an anticipatory pain response based on past experience. • Fear is conditioned (becomes a CR) whenever a CS is associated with an aversive (painful or undesirable) event. • Fear motivates two responses: • Escape (when pain is present) • Avoidance (when pain is about to happen)
Fear conditioning • Avoidance is not a good measure of fear. • Suppression of an operant behavior occurs with a feared stimulus. • First – an operant behavior is learned (bar press). • Second – a CS is paired with an aversive UCS (light with shock). • Third – the CS is presented in the operant chamber and the effect on operant responding is measured.
Suppression Ratio During CS Suppression Ratio = During CS + Without CS • The amount of time during and without the CS is equal. • The more fear, the lower the suppression ratio. • Ratios typically fall between 0 and .5 • This will be on the midterm
Flavor Aversion Learning • Garcia – rats will not drink water with saccharin if they get ill after drinking. • Significant avoidance occurs after just one trial. • Human food aversions are related to illness (89% of the time). • Even if illness occurs hours later it is linked to the previous meal. • Not cognitive – you can know the food is not to blame and still feel an aversion to it.
Acquired Changes in Response • Habituation – response to a repeated stimulus decreases with non-threat experience. • Sensitization – response to a variety of stimuli increases with a single threat experience. • Examples: • Ingestional neophobia, fear of new food • Rats orient less toward light, startle decreases • Chicks are less frightened by shadows flying overhead with repeated exposure.
Factors Affecting Conditioning • Timing – how closely in time are the CS and UCS, and which occurs first. • Novelty of the CS and UCS. • Intensity (strength) of the CS and UCS. • Consistency of the pairing between the CS and UCS. • If one or the other appears alone then conditioning is weakened.
Stimulus Presentation Paradigms • Delayed conditioning – the CS onset precedes the UCS onset. • Trace conditioning – the CS starts and ends before the UCS onset. • Simultaneous conditioning – the CS and UCS occur together. • Backward conditioning – the UCS starts and ends before the CS onset. • These paradigms will be on the midterm
3.8 Different ways to present CS and US in time This works best The longer the gap (trace interval) the worse this works This isn’t as good as delayed This doesn’t work at all
Temporal Conditioning • The UCS occurs at regular intervals in time. • Nominally, no CS is present, but aspects of the context in which the UCS occurs become conditioned to it. • Examples: • Waking up just before the alarm goes off. • Your dog knows when you will come home. • Getting sleepy right around bedtime.
Massed vs Spaced Trials • Better learning occurs when trials are spaced out over time (spaced), rather than bunched together (massed). • Memory consolidation or rehearsal may be needed between trials. • The ratio between the exposure to the CS and the time in-between is the important factor. • If both are the same duration, learning is weaker.
3.9 Trial spacing in Pavlovian conditioning This works best This doesn’t work as well
Importance of Contiguity • “Wait ‘til your father gets home” is an ineffective threat because punishment comes too late. • The further apart the CS and UCS in time, the less effective the conditioning. • Intermediate stimuli can form a bridge. • Ideal ISI (inter-stimulus intervals) vary with the kind of animal and the kind of UCR.
Importance of Predictiveness • Preexposure to the CS (before it is paired with the UCS) reduces learning. • Called latent inhibition because it inhibits learning of the CS-UCS association. • The same thing happens with preexposure to the US (before it is paired with the CS). • Called the US preexposure effect • Threat without punishment instills no fear, even if the child has been punished before.
Effect of Presenting UCS Alone UCS equally likely to occur alone or together with CS UCS always with CS
Preparedness Affects Learning • Both instrumental and classical conditioning are affected by preparedness (the innate nature of the organism). • Flavor aversion learning is easier with taste cues than with visual cues, but not shock. • Counterpreparedness – some CS’s cannot become associated with a UCS. • Preparedness makes a stimulus more salient.
Humans Show Preparedness • Humans show preparedness too, appropriate to our species. • Nausea can be associated with tequila but not with friends or a shot glass. • Snake and spider phobias may be especially prevalent due to preparedness. • People associate shock with spiders or snakes more readily than with flowers or mushrooms.
Stimulus Intensity (Strength) • The stronger the US (UCS), the faster the learning and the stronger the association. • The stronger the CS, the better the learning. • Salience – how attention-getting the stimulus is in relation to other stimuli in the environment. • The most salient CS becomes associated with the UCS. • An overpowering CS may elicit a response of its own, preventing learning.
Pseudo-conditioning • Responses to the CS may occur due to the strength of the UCS, not learning. • Once air has been puffed at the eye, blinking may occur in response to any stimulus that comes next, without any learning. • Sensitization resulting from an intense UCS may cause the response to a CS to be increased, even when there is not greater learning. • A control group lets you tell the difference.
3.10 Bernstein’s experiment on taste aversion learning Mapletoff is a novel ice cream prepared with Maple and Walnut flavored extracts.
Conditioning and Addictions • Drugs can be associated with environmental cues present when the drugs are taken. • Instead of the drug response being conditioned, an opposite adaptive response is conditioned that lessens the drug’s effect. • This is called drug tolerance. • Taking a drug under novel circumstances can produce a drug overdose because the compensatory effect is not present (no cues).
