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The Grammar of Poetry. Don Nilsen and Alleen Nilsen. Types of Metaphors. Live (Literary) Metaphors Dead Metaphors and Idioms (Alive in a Target Language) Conceptual Metaphors (e.g. LIFE IS A JOURNEY) Educational Metaphors (An atom is a miniature solar system)
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The Grammar of Poetry Don Nilsen and Alleen Nilsen
Types of Metaphors Live (Literary) Metaphors Dead Metaphors and Idioms (Alive in a Target Language) Conceptual Metaphors (e.g. LIFE IS A JOURNEY) Educational Metaphors (An atom is a miniature solar system) Ogden & Richards: Thing, Word, Concept
“Life is a Journey” Entails The person is a traveler. His purposes are destinations. Achievement of purposes are routes. Difficulties are road blocks Counselors are guides. Progress is the distance traveled. Therefore time is space. Progress is measured by landmarks. Choices in life are crossroads.
“The Road Not Taken”by Robert Frost Two roads diverged in a wood, and I— I took the one less traveled by, And that has made all the difference.
Schemes vs. Tropes Schemes and Tropes are both poetic devices. Schemes are superficial things like rhyme, eye rhyme, slant rhyme, end rhyme, internal rhyme, alliteration, assonance, scansion, etc. Tropes are more significant. The master tropes are: METAPHOR (AND SIMILE): A is (like) B METONYMY: A is associated with B IRONY: A is unexpectedly related to B SYNECDOCHE: A contains both B and C Double Entendre, Parody, Paradox, Satire, Sarcasm, Innuendo, synesthesia, etc. are also tropes.
Emily Dickenson“Life, Death and Time”Schemes (Surface Structure) vs. Tropes (Deep Structure) Because I could not stop for Death— He kindly stopped for me— The Carriage held but Ourselves— And Immortality. (JOURNEY) We slowly drove—He knew no haste And I had put away My labor and my leisure too. For his Civility— (JOURNEY)
We passed the School, where Children strove At recess—in the Ring— We passed the Fields of gazing Grain— We passed the setting Sun-- (LIFE) Or rather—He passed Us— The Dews drew quivering and chill— For only Gossamer, my Gown— My Tippet—only Tulle— (SYNESTHESIA)
We paused before a House that seemed A Swelling of the Ground— The Roof was scarcely visible— The Cornice—in the Ground-- (GRAVEYARD) Since then—’tis Centuries—and yet Feels shorter than the Day I first surmised the Horses’ Heads Were toward Eternity.
Twenty-Third PsalmBible • He leadeth me in the paths of righteousness for his name’s sake. Yea, though I walk through the valley of the shadow of death, I will fear no evil: for thou art with me; thy rod and thy staff they comfort me…. Surely goodness and mercy shall follow me all the days of my life: and I will dwell in the house of the Lord forever.
Dylan Thomas Do not go gentle into that good night, Old age should burn and rave at close of day; Rage, rage against the dying of the light. Though wise men at their end know dark is right, Because their words had forked no lightning they Do not go gentle into that good night.
Good men, the last wave by, crying how bright Their frail deeds might have danced in the green bay. Rage, rage against the dying of the light. Wild men who caught and sang the sun in flight, And learn, too late, they grieved it on its way, Do not go gentle into that good night.
Grave men, near death, who see with blinding sight Blind eyes could blaze like meteors and be gay, Rage, rage against the dying of the light. And you, my father, there on the sad height, Curse, bless, me now with your fierce tears, I pray. Do not go gentle into that good night. Rage, rage against the dying of the light.
Analogues that Highlight & Hide Information LIFE IS A JOURNEY LIFE IS A YEAR LIFE IS A DAY LIFE IS A PLAY (e.g. Frank Sinatra’s song which ends with a “final curtain”) LIFE IS A FIRE
William Shakespeare • “Put out the light and then put out the light.” • from Othello • To be or not to be…. • To die; to sleep;-- • To sleep? Perchance to dream! Ay, there’s the rub; • For in that sleep of death what dreams may come…. (Hamlet)
Sonnet Seventy-ThreeBy William Shakespeare)SEASON That time of year thou mayst in me behold. When yellow leaves, or none, or few, do hang. Upon those boughs which shake against the cold, Bare ruined choirs, where late the sweet birds sang.
Day In me thou seest the twilight of such day As after sunset fadeth in the west; Which by and by black night doth take away, Death’s second self that seals up all in rest.
Fire In me thou seest the glowing of such fire, That on the ashes of his youth doth lie, As the deathbed whereon it must expire Consumed with that which it was nourished by.
Love and Death This thou perceiv’st, which makes thy love more strong. To love that well, which thou must leave ere long.
William Shakespeare All the world’s a stage, And all the men and women merely players. They have their exits and their entrances; And one man in his time plays many parts. (As you Like It) Life’s but a walking shadow, a poor player That struts and frets his hour upon the stage And then is heard no more. (Macbeth)
Metaphor vs. Metonymy Metaphor is mapping; Metonymy is substituting. Therefore… “In metaphor, there are two conceptual domains, and one is understood in terms of the other.” “In metaphor , a whole schematic structure (with two or more entities) is mapped onto another whole schematic structure.” “In metaphor, the logic of the source-domain structure is mapped onto the logic of the target-domain structure.”
Metonymy involves only one conceptual domain. A metonymic mapping occurs within a single domain, not across domains. Metonymy is used primarily for reference: via metonymy, one can refer to one entity in a schema by referring to another entity in the same schema. In metonymy, one entity in a schema is taken as standing for one other entity in the same schema, or for the schema as a whole.
Objectivist (“scientific”) Claim George Lakoff says that “Objective reality” consists of states of affairs in the world independent of any human conceptualization or understanding. To be more precise, the world comes structured in a way that is objective—independent of any minds. The world as objectively structured includes objects, properties of those objects, relations holding among those objects, and categories of those objects, properties and relations. (i.e. Nouns, Verbs, Adjectives and Adverbs)
Truth • THE OBJECTIVIST CLAIM: • George Lakoff says that conventional expressions in a language designate aspects of an objective, mind-free reality. • Therefore, a statement must objectively be either true or false, depending on whether the objective world accords with the statement.”
Charles Fillmore’s Example Orientation of a Cube: six sides Box: top, bottom, four sides Dresser: top, bottom, front, back, right side, left side NOTE: “Left” and “right” are from our point of view, not the dresser’s point of view
Western vs. EasternThought Aristotelian: black-white, good-evil Vs. Zen Bhudism
Metaphor Theories STRONG POSITION: Every aspect of every concept is completely understood via metaphor. WEAK POSITION: Every linguistic expression expresses a concept that is at least in some aspect, understood via metaphor.
“The Great Chain of Being” God gods Humans Animals Plants Complex Objects Computers Cars Natural Physical Things Intangible Things (air, faith, hope, ideas, etc.)
Personification of Animals In American Culture: Lions are courageous and noble. Foxes are clever. Dogs are loyal, and dependable. Cats are fickle land independent. Wolves are cruel and murderous. Gorillas are aggressive and violent.
