Independence

1. Independence ANTH 221: Peoples and Cultures of Mexico Kimberly Martin, Ph.D.

2. Instability in Spain • Napoleon’s invasion of Spain beginning in 1807, lasting until 1814 destabilized Spain • Drained resources • Distracted Spain from colonies

3. The End of the Colonial Period • Conspiracy of the Machetes – 1799 • A group of criollo youths led by Pedro de la Portilla • Planned to storm the prison and release prisoners who would then accompany them • Then storm the palace and take the Viceroy and other officials prisoner • They were reported to authorities by one of their members • Imprisoned without a trial; some died in prison

4. Grito De Dolores • Miguel Hidalgo y Costillo – priest who had been banished to the small town of Dolores because of his rebelliousness • Was planning an uprising with others when the Mexican Government discovered the plot • Made a speech called the “Grito de Dolores,” the content of which is not exactly know, but which called for the overthrow of the Spanish.

5. Hidalgo and Allende • Hidalgo and Allende led up to 80,000 as they moved on the capital, Mexico City • They captured Guadalajara, and their men looted and ransacked the city, killing many • They split up to attack Mexico City, but were driven back • Both were eventually captured and executed.

6. Morelos • Morelos continued the fight, with small bands of rebels • Convened a congress in Chilpanzingo • Declaration of Independence • suffrage should be universal • slavery and the caste system should be abolished. • Government monopolies should be done away with and replaced with a 5% income tax • Catholicism would remain the official religion of the state • Morelos captured and executed in 1815

7. Guerrero & Victoria • Vincente Guerrero tried to continue with only about 1000 men from the Oaxaca area • Guadalupe Victoria led another 2000 men in Puebla • For about 5 years coordinated armed rebellion was stopped

8. Iturbide • In 1820 Iturbide led 2,500 Spanish men to fight Guerrero   • Negotiated with Guerrero for the overthrow of the Spanish instead • On Feb 24 they issued the Plan de Iguala • independent Mexico would be a constitutional monarchy, led by King Ferdinand or another European prince • the Catholic Church would remain the only official church in the country, • Creoles and peninsularies would have equal rights • a new army would be created to enforce the plan • In 1821, Iturbide, Guerrero and Victoria took Mexico City and Mexico was independent • Iturbide made half-hearted attempts to get a European monarch, then declared himself Emperor • Corrupt leader who took all revenues for ceremony and personal enrichment

9. Mexican Independence • The Centrists (conservatives) and the Federalists (liberals) fought with each other for control of the country for almost 100 years • They passed control back and forth and engaged in bloody fighting off and on • 76 Presidencies and 6 non-presidential heads of state from 1824 until the end of the Mexican Revolution in 1911 • Santa Ana president 11 times • Farias and Juarez president 5 times • Bustamonte, Porfirio Diaz president 3 times • Bravo, Pena twice each

10. Constitution of 1824 • Established the EstadosUnidosMexicanos as a federal republic of 19 states and four territories . • There were three branches of government to balance power : executive, legislative and judicial • The legislature was to be bicameral, with the upper house as the Senate and the lower house as the Chamber of Deputies . • Each state was represented by 2 senators and one deputy for every 80,000 residents. • The president and vice president were to be elected by the state legislatures for a 4 year term . • The Catholic church regained its monopoly on the spiritual life of Mexicans . • The president could become a dictator in times of emergencies. • The clergy and military were granted the old Spanish exemption of fueros from civil trials. • There was to be a free press and free speech . • Indian tribute was abolished .

11. Pastry War with France • 1838 Controversy with France over the treatment of its people living in Mexico • Fighting between Mexican factions caused damage and losses by businesses and private citizens • France attacked ostensibly to protect the interests and rights of its citizens living in Mexico • Diplomatic solution was reached with reparations paid to the French and they withdrew.

12. Mexican American War • Fought over land that Mexico claimed but could not colonize or control • U.S. belief in Manifest Destiny – they were entitled through God’s will to control land in American southwest • Texas and the Alamo • Santa Anna’s defeat and disgrace • 1846 U.S. took Los Angeles, Monterrey • 1847 invaded Veracruz and moved on Mexico City • Ended in 1848 with the Treaty of Guadalupe that annexed parts of Texas, Oklahoma, Arizona, New Mexico, California, Nevada, Colorado and Wyoming to the U.S.

13. Mexican American War

14. Annexations from Treaty of Guadalupe

15. Los Ninos Heroes • When the American Army attacked Mexico City, Chapultepec Castle was a target • Castle was defended by only 400 troops • Mexican troops retreated, leaving only six military cadets who refused to surrender • The six cadets fought to the death • Juan de la Barrera, • Agustin Melgar, • Juan Escutia, • Vicente Suarez, • Francisco Marquez • Fernando Montes de Oca. • The last standing, Juan Escutia, wrapped himself in the Mexican Flag and jumped off the Castle to prevent the flag from being taken by US Troops

16. Santa Anna’s Last Stand • 1854 - The Revolution of Ayutlaand The Plan of Ayutla1854 • Removed Santa Anna and convened an assembly to draft a federal constitution • Era of La Reforma • dismantled the old military and church led conservative state • a new secular, democratic state.

17. Benito Juarez • Presided over La Reforma • 5 terms as president (1858-1872) • Presidencies of nationalization, democratic reforms, indigenous rights, and lessening of the power of the church • First and only indigenous person to preside over a nation in the new world. “Entre los individuos, como entre lasnaciones, el respeto al derechoajenoes la paz” ("Among individuals, as among nations, respect for the rights of others is peace." )

18. La Reforma • 1855 – 1861 Attempts to create a nation-state • Characterized by conflict between State and Church • 1857 Constitution • Freedom of religion • Separation of church and state • Reform Laws • LeyLerdoabolishing clerical and communal properties (Miguel Lerdo) • Ley Juarez abolishing separate military and religious courts (Benito Juarez) • Ley Iglesias regulated the collection of clerical fees from the poor and prohibited clerics from charging for baptisms, marriages, or funeral services. • Marriage became a civil contract and registry of births, marriages and deaths was secularized • The number of religious holidays was reduced and several holidays to commemorate national events introduced. • Religious celebrations outside churches was forbidden • Use of church bells restricted • Clerical dress was prohibited in public • Clergy led rebellion against this change

19. The Reform War • 1856 to 1861 • Fighting between conservatives who held Mexico City and Liberals who had been driven to Veracruz • Liberals won, with Benito Juarez elected to presidency in 1861 • Once again, war had decimated the Mexican economy • Huge debts to European countries, esp. France

20. Franco Mexican War • 1861 – English, French and Spanish unite to collect on Mexican loans • 1862 - France invaded • 1863 – French take Mexico City • 1864 – French send Maximilian of Austria to become Emperor of Mexico • The new Empire is supported by the conservatives and the clergy. • The United States sided with Mexico and sent troops after the end of the Civil War • Mexican republican troops began to take back parts of Mexico • France and Maximilian withdrew in 1867 • Juarez returned to his presidency and reforms

21. Porfirio Diaz and the Porfiriato • Led rebellions against Juarez and Lerdo when they were reelected in the 1870’s – opposed reelection of others as undemocratic • BUT was President almost continuously from 1876 to 1911 • Led by “pan, o palo” (bread or stick) mentality of fear • Internal stability, modernization, peace, prosperity • First world status for Mexican economy • Called by many a dictator • Ignored indigenous peoples • Neutral toward church • Mexican Revolution began in reaction to massive electoral fraud in 1910 election against Madero • Diaz fled Mexico in 1911 and died in Paris in 1915.

22. Mexican Revolution • 1910 – Began with the defeat of the Federal Army by revolutionaries, forcing Diaz to flee. • After Diaz left, there was violence and civil war for 20 years that is called the Mexican Revolution • Revolutionary players • Emiliano Zapata • Pancho Villa • Pascual Orozco • Venustiano Carranza

23. Revolution: 1911 – 1920 • Madero elected president in 1911, but captured and killed in 1913 by Huerta. • Huerta was captured and overthrown in 1915 by Carranza • Carranza orchestrated the Constitution of 1917 which still governs Mexico • Carranza was assassinated by former supporters in 1919 • Obregon became President in 1920 • There followed a period of 6 years of more order, with fighting still going on in some parts of Mexico • 900,000 people are estimated to have died between 1910 and 1921

24. The Cristero War – 1926-1929 • Popular uprising broke out against the anti-Catholic\anti-clerical Mexican government, • Anti-clerical provisions of the Mexican Constitution of 1917. • Article 5 outlawed monastic religious orders • Article 24 forbid public worship outside of church buildings • Article 27 restricted religious organizations' rights to own property • Article 130 took away basic civil rights of the clergy • Priests and religious leaders were prevented from wearing their habits • Priests and religious leaders were denied the right to vote • Priests and religious leaders were not permitted to comment on public affairs in the press. • Eventually resolved diplomatically, largely with the help of the U.S. • 90,000 people died in the conflict: 56,882 on the federal side, 30,000 Cristeros, • Resolution was that the laws remained on the books with the understanding that the federal government would make made no organized attempt to enforce them.

25. The PRI Comes to Town • 1929 – 2000 • Partido Revolucionario Institucional (Institutional Revolutionary Party ) • First called the National Mexican Party • Formed by President Calle • Consolidated all revolutionary armies under the national Army • Led by a “caudillo” or charismatic political-military leader • 1934 Cardenas ousted Calle and last military president • Election fraud allowed PRI to control virtually ALL of Mexican political offices • First exception is 1988

26. El MilagroMexicano • 1930-1970 saw huge economic growth in Mexico • Public education • Infrastructure • Energy and nationalization of oil

27. Tlatelolco Massacre • Student protest organizations in reaction to PRI • Huge amounts of money poured into the 1968 Olympics • Suppression of labor unions, farmers • Corruption • Noche de Triste October 2, 1968, government snipers opened fire on 10,000 students demonstrators.

28. Economic Collapse • 1970-1994 • Oil prices stabilized at lower levels, and the Mexican economy was almost wholely dependent on oil • Need for diversification of trade and trade opportunities • Devaluing of Mexican currency • Collapse and nationalization of banks

29. The End of PRI Monopoly • 1985 Earthquake was massive and caused enormous damage and public anger at mismanagement of disaster relief • Creation of the Instituto Federal Electoral (Federal Electoral Institute) in 1990s • 1994 El Error de Deciembre (The December Mistake) devalued the peso in ways that were destabilizing to the economy (US intervention was required) • The Zapatista Movement beginning in 1994 • Election of Vincente Fox from PAN (PartidoAccion National or National Action Party) in 2000