New Religious Movements

1. New Religious Movements April 2013

2. New Religious Movements • Throughout history, there have been many religious groups distinct from the larger world religions • Perhaps 100,000,000 people worldwide adhere to groups that may be characterized as “New Religious Movements” (NRMs) • These groups are quite diverse • Some originate as offshoots from mainstream religions • Some seek to reclaim ancient and/or secret practices and wisdom • Some are based upon the teachings of a charismatic leader • There are far too many New Religious Movements to list • Each year, new movements arise, fragment, disappear, or institutionalize

3. Cults • In academic terms, a cult is a religious group which is distinct from larger traditions, while a sect is a subgroup or offshoot of a larger tradition • Since the mid-20th century, the word “cult” has taken on a pejorative meaning in the popular media; academics tend to use the term “New Religious Movement” instead • Stark and Bainbridge identify three types of cult: • Audience cults: these do not require conversion; a person may listen to the teachings of the leadership, perhaps attending workshops or meetings, but may also hold other religious affiliations and no regular participation is required • Client cults: these offer a service to members such as therapy. A client’s involvement may begin in a casual way but generally deepens over time • Cult movements: these are organizations which require conversion and do not allow membership in other religious groups. The level of commitment may be partial (members may still carry on a life outside of the cult) or total (members are cut off from society)

4. Charismatic Leadership • Many NRMs are started by charismatic leaders who attract a community of followers • The term “charismatic” means “having gifts”; a charismatic leader is one who has the unusual capacity to inspire; in the case of religions, a charismatic leader may be viewed as a guru, prophet, or messiah • NRMs based around charismatic personalities may not survive the death of their leader; those that do are able to “routinize” the charisma and produce new leaders • Some may become more institutionalized, behaving more like churches than sects • Most major world religions originated as cults/NRMs based upon the teachings of a charismatic figure

5. Diversity of New Religious Movements • In order to explore the diversity of New Religious Movements, we will examine several different examples of NRMs: • Baha’i • Wicca • Rastafari • Scientology • We will also look briefly at instances where NRMs have been associated with violence, as in the case of the People’s Temple and AumShinrikyo

6. Baha’i • In Iran in 1844, a young man named Sayyid ‘Ali Muhammad, called the Bab (“Gateway”) by his followers, prophesied the coming of a new messenger of God • In Twelver Shi’ite eschatology, the Bab is the person who re-establishes contact between the hidden Imam and the Shi’ite community • Persian authorities, considering this blasphemy against Islam, put him and a large number of his followers to death • Leadership passed to a Persian aristocrat named Mirza Husayn ‘Ali Nuri (1817-1892), called Baha’u’llah (“Glory of God”) • Baha’u’llah had not met the Bab, but had a religious experience while in captivity • Baha’u’llah was banished from Iran to Baghdad, which was under the control of the Ottoman Empire at the time, and then moved to Istanbul • In 1862, he claimed to have a 12-day-long mystical experience, and began to identify himself as the new messenger prophesied by the Bab • Baha’u’llah was then banished to Acre, Palestine, where he wrote prolifically and won a large number of followers

7. Baha’i • When Baha’u’llah died in 1892, leadership of the community passed to his son, Abdu’l-Baha • Abdu’l-Baha passed leadership to his son, Shoghi Effendi Rabbani, who then passed leadership to an elected council, the Universal House of Justice, in 1963 • Baha’is consider Baha’u’llah a prophet in the same way as Abraham, Moses, the Buddha, Krishna, Jesus, and Muhammad • Baha’i is universalistic; all religions are understood as worshipping the same god • The sacred texts of Baha’i are the writings of Baha’u’llah: • The Kitab-i Aqdas (“The Most Holy Book,” 1873), a book of laws • The Kitab-i Iqan (“The Book of Certitude,” 1861), containing doctrine • Hidden Words (1858), a work on ethics • The Seven Valleys (1856), a mystical work

8. Baha’i Beliefs • Baha’is believe in “progressive revelation”: the idea that humanity is in the process of maturing, and that God has revealed Godself to humans through prophets at different times in history in ways that were appropriate to human culture at the time • God is unknowable, and the soul is eternal • Baha’is advocate for economic, racial, and sexual equality • The most distinctive feature of Baha’i is its call for a united human federation • This society would be based upon democracy, human rights, and the following principles: • The end of all forms of prejudice • Equality for women • Acceptance of the unity and different forms of expression of truth • Just distribution of wealth • Universal education • The freedom and responsibility of each individual to seek the truth • Development of a peaceful community of all humanity • Harmony of science and religion

9. Baha’i Practices • Baha’is pray five times per day after washing their hands and faces • Baha’is do not take drugs or alcohol • Life cycle rituals involve a simple naming ceremony, a declaration of faith at age 15, a wedding ceremony based on the taste of the couple, and a simple funeral involving prayer said in unison • The Baha’i calendar has 19 months of 19 days each, with four extra days • At the start of each month, Baha’is have a community feast • They may also gather weekly for study and worship • The last month of the year is devoted to dawn-to-dusk fasting, like the Muslim fast during Ramadan • Various holidays throughout the year celebrate important events in Baha’i history

10. Baha’i Today • There are approximately 7 million Baha’is today in communities all around the world • Approximately 750,000 Baha’is live in North America • A large percentage live in India • The Iranian Revolution of 1979 drove many Baha’is from Iran • The world Baha’i headquarters is in Haifa, Israel • Baha’is actively support the United Nations

11. Neo-Paganism • “Paganism” is a broad term originally used by Christians to refer to any non-Christian religion, especially the pre-Christian religions of Europe • Neo-Paganism is an effort by modern people to recover these traditions in modern times

12. Witchcraft • In medieval Europe, pre-Christian religion was identified with witchcraft and devil-worship • People suspected of practicing witchcraft were persecuted, sometimes being burned at the stake • The extent to which pre-Christian religion was practiced in medieval Europe is unclear • Some modern Neo-Pagans identify as witches and claim to be part of a hidden lineage dating back to pre-Christian times

13. Wicca • Wicca is a Neo-Pagan religion which became popular in England in the 1940s • It was popularized by Gerald Gardner (1884-1964), who claimed to have been initiated into a secret coven (group) of witches who traced their lineage to ancient times • Gardner “revealed” the rituals and teachings of this group to the public • Wicca was introduced to the United States in the 1960s, where it became quite popular

14. Wicca Practices & Beliefs • Wiccan belief and practice is highly flexible, with different covens and individuals interpreting the tradition according to their own tastes • Wiccans view the world as being ordered by interconnected natural forces personified as gods and goddesses • This generally includes a supreme Goddess and God • These forces can be accessed through rituals including dance, singing and chanting, and magic • Wiccans celebrate a yearly cycle of eight “Sabbats” corresponding to ancient agricultural festivals and the equinoxes and solstices • Wiccan ethics are summarized by the Wiccan Rede: “An it harm none, do what ye will” (“Do what you like as long as it harms no one”) • Dianic Wicca is a feminist strand of Wicca which prohibits male membership

15. Other Neo-Pagan Religions • Many other Neo-Pagan traditions exist aside from Wicca • Goddess Spirituality seeks to recover the feminine divine as a counter to the maleness of the Christian God • Some Neo-Pagans seek to recover Druidism and other local traditions

16. Rastafari • The island of Jamaica in the Caribbean is home to a unique New Religious Movement: Rastafari • Jamaica is a former British colony which is predominantly Christian; most Jamaicans are the descendents of African slaves • Although sharing some scripture and beliefs in common with Christianity, Rastafari differs from other Caribbean Afro-Christian religions (Vodou, Santeria) in that it has little in common with traditional African religion

17. Marcus Garvey & Haile Selassie • Weary of centuries of oppression, many Afro-Jamaicans were inspired by Marcus Garvey (1887-1940), an Afro-Jamaican activist who called for a return to Africa • Garvey often used prophetic-style language in his speeches; he reportedly said “Look to Africa when a black king shall be crowned” • Shortly afterwards, Ras (Prince) Tafari (1892-1975) was crowned Haile Selassie, emperor of Ethiopia (at the time, the only nation in Africa not colonized by Europeans) • Some Jamaicans began to view Selassie as the Living God, using interpretations of the Bible, especially Revelation, to justify their view • Haile Selassie was an Ethiopian Orthodox Christian all his life

18. Rasta Beliefs • No central authority exists in Rastafari; belief varies from Rasta to Rasta • Rasta belief is based on return to Zion, the Promised Land for the African diaspora, identified as Ethiopia or Africa in general • The language and symbolism of the Hebrew Bible figures prominently in Rasta culture, especially the Exodus narrative and the Psalms • White European culture is identified as Babylon, the realm of evil and slavery • God is called Jah, Haile Selassie is identified as the returned Jesus, and the covenant people of the Hebrew Bible are seen as Africans • Rasta scripture includes the Bible; Rastas believe that a secret second half of the Bible exists within the human heart

19. Rasta Practices • Many Rastas wear dreadlocks, in keeping with the Biblical ascetic order of Nazirites as well as to symbolize the Lion of Judah, a title for Haile Selassie • Some Rastas observe a special diet called “I-tal,” based on kashrut • Rastas often use the first-person pronoun “I and I,” symbolizing the unity of the Rasta with Jah • Rasta ceremonies include Reasoning, in which Rastas gather, read and interpret the Bible, and smoke ganja (marijuana) • While some Rastas believe in equality between the brethren (men) and the sistren (women), others do not consider the sistren to be fully capable of experiencing Rasta awareness

20. Rastafari and Reggae • Rasta theology and doctrine is often expressed through music, especially reggae music • The most famous Rasta is reggae musician Bob Marley • Reggae music has brought Rastafari to a global audience

21. Scientology & L. Ron Hubbard • One of the most well-known NRMs in contemporary society is Scientology, founded in 1954 by American writer L. Ron Hubbard (1911-1986) • In 1950, Hubbard published Dianetics: The Modern Science of Mental Healing, in which he outlined a method for curing psychological problems • In 1954, he founded the Hubbard Association of Scientologists and the First Church of Scientology in Washington, DC • Scientology (based on ancient Greek, roughly, “the science of knowledge”) incorporates the psychological theories of Dianetics with an elaborate mythology and different levels of initiation

22. Scientology Practices • Scientologists strive to become “Clear,” a state of mind that is free of all “engrams” (psychological problems or baggage) • To become Clear, one must identify one’s engrams through a therapeutic process called “auditing” • Auditing is conducted by a senior Scientologist with the aid of an “E-meter,” a device similar to a lie detector • The auditing process, called “The Bridge to Total Freedom,” has various stages in which the Scientologist undergoes progressively more in-depth auditing and learns the esoteric mythology of Scientology

23. Scientology Beliefs • Scientologists call the mind/soul the Thetan • According to Scientologist myth, the Thetans were a race of advanced, incorporeal extraterrestrial beings who became trapped in the material world • By becoming Clear, a human being comes to understand his or her true nature as a Thetan and is capable of out-of-body experiences and other paranormal abilities • According to the esoteric teachings of Scientology, alien Thetans also exist on Earth, having been trapped in the material world in the distant past by the alien warlord Xenu • L. Ron Hubbard worked as a science fiction writer early in his life, which may have influenced the more fantastical elements of Scientologist mythology

24. Scientology Today • There may be approximately 100,000-200,000 Scientologists worldwide, mostly in North America and Europe • The current Chairman of the Church of Scientology is David Miscavige • The Church of Scientology has attracted criticism for its secretive organizational structure, its criticism of mainstream psychiatry, the fees it charges for auditing, and its use of lawsuits against its critics • Some celebrity Scientologists include Tom Cruise, Katie Holmes, Kirstie Alley, John Travolta, Isaac Hayes, and Chick Corea

25. New Age Spirituality • “New Age Spirituality” is a catch-all term for a number of spiritual movements originating in the West in the 1970s and 1980s • Common themes in these movements are their anti-institutional, individualistic ethos, reverence for nature, emphasis on self-improvement, and adoption of shamanic themes • Given their individualistic nature, it is difficult to categorize them as “religions” • New Age movements may draw upon Western, Eastern, and/or indigenous religious practices, but are generally oriented towards people in contemporary Western society • Many such movements may be categorized as “audience cults”

26. New Age Spirituality • The cultural changes in Western society in the 1960s led some to believe that a “new age” was imminent • This became popularly known as the “Age of Aquarius,” drawing upon the Zodiac • The “new age” was to be characterized by freedom, peace, love, and universal spirituality • By the 1970s and 1980s, a variety of practices associated with this “new age” became popular • These practices included astrology, “channeling” of spiritual beings, meditation, psychic practices and hypnosis, alternative healing, tarot reading, diets, etc. • Spiritual progress is often equated with material success; practitioners of New Age spirituality often believe that personal spiritual development will lead to “self-help” and material prosperity • Various thinkers, writers, and gurus have contributed to the development of New Age spirituality

27. New Religious Movements and Violence • Suspicion of New Religious Movements is related to some high-profile instances of violence, including: • In 1978, 918 members of the People’s Temple, a communist-influenced NRM, committed mass “revolutionary suicide” at Jonestown, Guyana • In 1993, 83 members of a millenarian movement called the Branch Davidians were killed in a fire when the FBI besieged their compound in Waco, Texas, believing the Branch Davidians had weapons • In 1995, members of the Japanese NRM Aum Shinrikyo released nerve gas at a Tokyo subway station, killing 13 people and seriously injuring many more • In 1997, 39 members of the UFO religion Heaven’s Gate committed suicide, believing their souls would be taken to a spaceship hiding behind the Hale-Bopp Comet

28. Anti-Cult Movements • Around the world, NRMs are often viewed with suspicion, and are sometimes persecuted by state authorities • This may occur in states with official or unofficial state religions, like Iran or Russia, or in secular or atheistic states • Non-state organizations may also persecute NRMs • In the United States in the 1970s an 1980s, widespread fear of NRMs using “brainwashing” techniques to control the minds of their followers led the “anti-cult” movement to hire special agents to capture and “deprogram” members of NRMs • Most scholars argue that the indoctrination techniques used by NRMs are not fundamentally different than those used by other religious, political, and cultural groups • Some organizations that used coercive deprogramming techniques have been sued; the practice is rare today