Introduction

1. Introduction LanguageandLinguistics

2. Preview • Introduction: importanceoflanguage • Communication systems • Functionsoflanguage Universalpropertiesoflanguage • Definitionsoflanguage • Approaches to thestudyoflanguage

3. Importanceoflanguage • A means to pass a recordofwhathashappenedfrom one generation to thenextthroughstoriesandsagas, evenbeforewrittenrecords • Developmentoftools to meet a broad rangeofneeds – impossiblewithoutlanguage

4. Importanceoflanguage • Capacity for self-awarenessandabstractthought – dependent on language • Theability to transfer complexinformation, to discussthemeaningofeventsandoutcomesof alternative actions, to sharefeelingsandideas – impossiblewithoutlanguage

5. Questions for discussion • Whatiscommunication? • Whichcommunicationsystemscanyouthinkof? • What are thebasicelementsofcommunication? • Are wetheonlybeingscapableofcommunication? • Iscommunicationalwaysverbal?

6. Questions for discussion • Whatdistinguishes human fromanimalcommunication? • Whyiscontextimportant for communication? • Whattypesofcontextcanyouthinkof?

7. Communication • Communication – transfer ofinformation • Sign – a basicunitofcommunication • Sign – sththatstands for sthelse(referent) to communicate it (communicate = to make sthcommon)

8. Whatis a sign?

9. Sign

10. Semiotic triangle

11. Semantic Triangle

12. Communication

13. Communication

14. Basic elements of communication • Sender: sendsthemessage • Channel: the medium used to transmit the message • Receiver: reconstructs the message • Feedback

15. Communication

16. Code • Senderintentionallyproduces a sign for therecipient • Howcantherecipient interpret thesign? • Code – a set ofsigns, determinedbyconvention, thatprovidestherulesofinterpretation • Allcommunication systems - codes

17. Code • For successfulcommunication, thecodehas to beshared • Thelackof a commoncode – a recurringissueintheareaoflanguageandlaw

18. Context Neededfor communication over and above the code • Co-present communicationbrings its own context i.e. the surrounding space (deictics)

19. Context • Immediateverbalcontext • Situationalcontext • Socio-culturalcontext

20. Answerthefollowing: • What are themainfunctionsoflanguage? • What are themainpropertiesoflanguage? • Whatislinguistics? • Canyoumention some branchesoflinguistics?

21. FunctionsoflanguageR. Jakobson’s classification

22. Languagefunctions • Emotive (expressive)-expressesthespeaker’s feelings (“What a surprise!”) • Referential – informationaboutexternalreality • Conative – makingtherecipientactin a particularway (“Openthewindow!”) • Phatic – establishingcontact (“Hello!”) • Poetic– focuses on themessage (Carl Sandburg: “Thefogcomesin on littlecatfeet”; metaphor) Metalinguistic – focuses on thecode “What’s thesubjectofthis sentence?”

23. Propertiesoflanguage • Multifunctionality • Freedomfromstimulus • Distancing • Socialtransferability • Transferabilityofmedium

24. Multifunctionalityoflanguage • Expressesthought • Transmitsinformation • Initiates, maintainsandregulatescooperativeactivitiesandsocialrelationships • Expressesfeelingsandstatesofmind • Resolvesproblems • Createspossibleworlds

25. Freedomfromstimulus • Language – independentfromstimuli, i.e. externalaspectsof a situation • Distinguishes human fromanimallanguage • Human verbalmessages – free, no deterministicaspect

26. Distancing • Thepossibility to formulatemessageswhich are distantinspaceand time – characteristicof human language as opposed to animalcommunication

27. Socialtransferability • Anthropologically, anylanguage is sociallyandculturallytransmitted • Any human beingacquires at least one language (mothertongue) andcanlearnotherlanguages • Innatelanguagefaculty: universalpropertiesoflanguage – emptyslotsfilledbymaterialprovidedbytheenvironment

28. Transferabilityofmedium: spokenandwritten • Primacyofthespokenlanguage: • Ontogenetic (a child first learns to speak) • Filogenetic (writingdevelopedmuchlaterin human history) • Socialprimacyofthewrittenlanguageinmodernsocieties (higherculturalprestige; science, education, law)

29. Universalpropertiesoflanguage • Althoughlanguagesdifferinmanyways, they are madepossiblebythe same geneticinformation, processedinthebraininthesamewaysandtheyshare some fundamentalfeaturesandstructuralcharacteristics • Understandingandexplainingthepropertieswhich are universal to all languages, as well as thosewhichvaryacrosslanguages – taskofgeneral linguistics

30. Universalpropertiesoflanguage • Arbitrariness • Modularity • Compositionalityandrecursion • Discreteness • Productivity • Reliance on context • Variability

31. Arbitrariness • the relationship between the form (the sounds / words / letters / characters) that we use hasno natural/meaningful relationship with their meaning, therefore this relationship (between form and meaning) is said to be arbitrary.

32. Modularity • Language – a modularsystem: producedandinterpretedbyusinga set ofcomponentsubsystems (or modules) in a coordinatedway • Different regions ofthebrain – associatedwithdifferentaspectsoflanguageprocessing

33. Modularity • Productionandinterpretationofspeechsounds – phonetics • Wordsandtheirstructure – morphology • Structureofsentences – syntax • Lexicon – interactingwiththeseproperties • Meaning – semantics • Discourse - organizationoflanguagebeyondthe sentence

34. Compositionalityandrecursion • Languages – organizedintoconstituents, allowingsimplerstructures to buildincreasinglycomplex units

35. Compositionality: examples • She sat down. • Thesmartwoman sat down. • Thetall, dark-haired, smartwomanwiththebright red sweaterandpearlnecklace sat down.

36. Recursion • Propertyoflanguagewhichallowsgrammaticalprocesses to be applied repeatedly, combiningconstituents to produceandinfinitevarietyofsentencesofindefinitelength

37. Recursion • Profoundimplications – noonecanlearn a languagebymemorizing all thesentencesofthatlanguage, sothere must beanotherexplanation for how human beings are able to learnthem • The human brain – finite, but recursivenessmeansthat it is capableofproducingandunderstandinganinfinitenumberofsentences

38. Productivity • Languagecanalwaysproducemessagesthathaveneverbeenproducedbefore • Infinitecombinationsofbasicunitswhosenumber is limited • Rule-basedcreativity: infiniteproductivitybased on a limitednumberofprinciplesandrules

39. Discretness • Unitsoflanguage are notcontinuous; there is a limit between one element andthenext

40. Discreteness • Language – composedofsounds, words, sentencesetc. • Thefactthatwehearspeech as a sequenceofindividualsounds, wordsandsentences – incredibleaccomplishment • Childreninthe first year or twolearn to pickoutwordsfromthestreamofspeechwith no instruction

41. Reliance on context • Pronounciationofoneandwon: the same sequenceofsoundscanrepresentdifferentconceptsinthesamelanguage • Themeaningof a sentence depends on thecontextinwhich it is uttered • Thecontext: sentence or sentenceswhichprecede it, or thebroaderphysicalorsocialcircumstancesinwhichthe sentence is uttered

42. Reliance on context: examples • It’s cold inhere– couldbe a complaint, arequest to close thewindow, or even a compliment • Languagesrely on theconnectionbetweenform (what is said) andcontext (when, where, bywhom, and to whom it is said) to communicatemuch more than is containedin a sequenceofwords.

43. Variability • Thelanguagepeople use variesdepending on who’s speakingandthesituationinwhichthey are speaking • Variation – essenceofinformation • Variabilityoflanguage – indexical • Speakersvarythelanguagethey use to signal theirsocialidentities (geographical, social status, ethnicity, gender) andalso to definetheimmediatespeechsituation

44. Variability • Peopleshow who they are bythevarietyoflanguagethey use - theyrevealtheirgeographicaloriginandsocial status. • They signal membershipin a rangeofoverlappingsocial groups: male or female, teenageroradult, memberofanethic group, etc.

45. Variability • Peoplealso use languagevariation to communicatethesituationandpurposeinwhichthey are talking, as wellastherolesthey are playinginthosesituations

46. Definitionoflanguage • Language is • a) acode • B) whichorganizes a systemofsignswhich are • C) primarilyphonic-acoustic • D) fundamentallyarbitrary • F) capableofexpressinganything • G) possessed as interiorizedknowledgewhichallows to produceinfinitesentencesstartingfrom a limitednumberofelements

47. General principles for theanalysisoflanguage • Synchronicanddiachronicapproach • Langue et parole • Paradigmaticandsyntagmaticaxis • Levelsofanalysis

48. Thedescriptiveapproach • Language – universalcharacteristicof human beings • Alllanguages (andlanguagevarieties) – equal • Languagevarietiesdifferbecauseover time theyhaveadapted to differingneedsoftheirspeechcommunities • Eachlanguage – equallyfunctionalinmeetingthecommunicativeneedsofitsspeechcommunity

49. Standard languages vs othervarieties • thelanguagevarietyofthedominant group is oftenperceived as havinghigher status as well, especiallyifspeaking it affordsincreased access to power or wealth; languagevarietiesspokenbythelesspowerful groups – oftenstigmatized as “incorrect” or “bad” language

50. Thedescriptiveapproach • Linguiststakelanguage as theyfind it, ratherthanattempting to regulate it inthedirectionofpreconceivedcriteria