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CH 511 – The History of Christianity 2. The Reformation in Germany Slides based in part on The Story of Christianity by Justo Gonzalez. Germany at the beginning of the 16 th century (1501). Most “churchly” of European lands Virulent anticlericalism was little in evidence
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CH 511 – The History of Christianity 2 The Reformation in Germany Slides based in part on The Story of Christianity by Justo Gonzalez
Germany at the beginning of the 16th century (1501) • Most “churchly” of European lands • Virulent anticlericalism was little in evidence • Papal authority remained greater in Germany that in any other leading European country, apart from Italy • Lay piety and devotion ran mostly in traditional channels • Pilgrimages and Masses for the dead more popular than ever • Veneration of the Saints (Mary, Anne) was prevelant • Many new churches, chapels, chantries • Devotional literature readily available; regular preaching was common • Cannot be said that Germany was in a state of incipient revolution against the venerable rule and governance of the Roman Church
But beneath the surface… • Strong currents of discontent and disaffection over the Roman Church’s fiscal problems • Renaissance popes lived beyond their means, often on the edge of bankruptcy; the papacy required immense sums to maintain its political standing in Italy • To meet expenses, the papal curia devised new and more oppressive taxes, fees and fines which bore heavily on the higher clergy who, in turn, passed them on to the lower clergy, and, ultimately, the laity • “Rome” had become a byword, especially in Germany, for venality and avarice • Fiscalism was compounded by the typical vices: simony, nepotism, pluralism, absenteeism and concubinage
The state of parish clergy • Minimally educated (knew barely enough Latin “to say an adequate Mass”) • Often wretchedly poor • Frequently living with concubines, for which they were fined annually by their bishops • Morale of clergy was very low • Though these shortcomings were not unprecedented and were, perhaps, no more excessive than in earlier periods, the perception of them was more and more intolerable by an increasingly literate and educated laity
Religious “Awakening” on Eve of Reformation • The Council of Constance (1415) had ushered in an Awakening of sorts; the institutional church suddenly faced with demands to truly conform itself to the “pure apostolic church” pictured in the New Testament • Thoughtful people wanted not less religion but “better,” which meant more biblical • Christian Humanists, like Desiderius Erasmus, envisioned a moral and spiritual renovation through the inculcation of “sacred and humane letters” – that is the study of Holy Scripture and the liberal arts; ad fontes (“to the sources”) program of reform • Irony: the Roman hierarchy failed to exercise moral and spiritual leadership; and the clergy on the parish level were incapable of exercising it
Popular Religion on Eve of Reformation • More “earnest” than “encouraging” • Deep sense of terror; living in the “Last Days” • Thoughts of death, purgatorial pains and universal judgment meant an intense preoccupation with personal salvation • The Church taught that one’s eternal destiny would be determined by how effectively one had appropriated the church’s sacrament graces in order to bring about truly meritorious works • Opened tender consciences to the question: “Have I actually performed God-pleasing works?”
Why did the Reformation take root in Germany? • It presented a clear message of religious consolation for the anxious conscience • Held out hope for relief from ecclesiastical abuses, especially for people who for both spiritual and material reasons felt aggrieved with the Roman Church • Satisfied, or promised to satisfy, the needs of many people who earnestly desired the consolations of the Christian religion • The people who embraced the Reformation, on the whole, were not rapacious foes of the medieval church, but sincere seekers after salvation
Johannes Reuchlin (1455-1522) • Celebrated Humanist accused of heresy for defending the rights of Jews to maintain their own scholarship • His trial (1520) united the German humanists and drew a line of cleavage between them and conservatives in the Roman Church
Luther’s Resume • Born November 10, 1483 in Eisleben, Germany (second son and one of eight children) • His father was a copper miner; both parents were of simple, conventional piety (not prone to excess, zeal, or rigor) • His father was an ambitious man, moving his family to Mansfield, were he won civic respect and considerable prosperity in the mining industry; determined to give Martin an education fitting for a career in law • Martin entered the University of Erfurt in 1501, the most humanist of German universities; came to share in the humanist movement’s enthusiasm for the study of ancient languages, especially Greek, and its criticism of Scholastic theology on the basis of the Bible and the Church Fathers
The young Luther had a strong sense of sinfulness and anxiety in keeping with the age; but perhaps more pronounced in Luther • Graduated with Master of Arts in 1505, entered law school • Profoundly moved by the sudden death of a classmate; and then had a narrow escape from a lightening bolt while returning to Erfurt from a trip home • His narrow escape from death caused him to make a vow to St. Anne to become a monk, much to the chagrin of his father • Left law school in July 1505 and entered the monastery of Augustinian hermits in Erfurt, confident that the monastic life was the surest path to his soul’s salvation
Johannes von Staupitz (1460-1524) • Vicar-General of the Augustinian Order in Germany • "If it had not been for Dr. Staupitz, I should have sunk in hell.” (Martin Luther)
Augustinian Order • Recently reformed by Andreas Proles • Enjoyed deserved popular respect, representing medieval monasticism at its best • The order made much of preaching and Bible study • Included in its number the great 14th century scholar, Gregory of Rimini, whom Luther came to value most highly as the one Scholastic theologian who was free from “any taint of Pelagianism” • Augustine of Hippo’s anti-Pelagian treatises were, of course, also important for Luther’s theological development • Luther would always credit his mentor, Staupitz, as having initiated the Reformation (though Staupitz never actually embraced it)
Brother Martin • Ordained to the priesthood in 1507 • Transferred to Wittenberg in 1508, where at the command of his superiors he lectured on Aristotle’s ethics and prepared himself for a professorship in the university that had been established there (1502) by the Saxon elector, Frederick III “the Wise” (1486-1525) • Made a memorable pilgrimage to Rome for his order in the winter of 1510-1511 • In 1512, Luther became a Doctor of Theology and was appointed successor to Staupitz as university professor of bible
Luther’s exegetical lectures • Psalms (1513-1515) • Romans (1515-1516) • Galatians (1516-1517) • Hebrews (1517-1518) • In addition he was appointed director of studies for his own cloister (1515), district vicar in charge of eleven monasteries; he was a regular preaching in his own cloister and in the Wittenberg parish church
Luther’s tormented soul • In spite of all his monastic strenuousness, Luther found no peace for his soul • Sense of sinfulness before a holy and righteous God overwhelmed him • Was not relieved by the sacrament of penance; only aggravated his sense of sinfulness; Staupitz helped him by pointing out that true penitence begins not with the fear of God, but with love to God; Luther would later say that Staupitz first opened his eyes to the Gospel
Intellectual Influences • Early on, Luther devoted himself to the later Scholastics, the “Nominalists” – particularly Ockham, d’Ailly, and Biel • To them he owed his dialectical skills, his distrust of speculative reason that transcends the limits of revelation, and his emphasis on the will of God as the sole ground of salvation (the Nominalist taught that salvation ultimately rested on God’s free acceptance) • The study of Augustine and late medieval Augustinianism led him to rapidly grow in hostility to the dominance of Aristotle in theology
Luther’s Study of Romans (1515-1516) • By the time that Luther lectured on Romans, he had become convinced that salvation is a new relationship to God, based not on any human work of merit but on absolute trust in the divine promise of forgiveness for Christ’s sake • The Gospel was the radical message that God “justifies the ungodly” through faith apart from works, raising up self-confessed sinners and reconciles them to God • The redeemed person does not cease being a sinner, yet is freely and fully forgiven • Works flow from the new life in Christ, not out of compulsion because salvation depends on such works, but out of gratitude because salvation has already been assured
Luther’s 1517 Disputation against Scholastic Theology (97 Theses) • Attack on the entire Scholastic body of thought, including both Thomism and Scotism, as well as the via moderna (Ockham) and the Nominalists; he left no stone unturned • Declared that all talk of merit in salvation – whether Thomistic or Nominalist – was ultimately blasphemous and heretical (Pelagian) • He thus overthrew the basis of all that he considered works-righteousness in the church’s traditional teaching • He did not stand alone; in the University of Wittenberg were many who supported his opposition to Aristotelianism and Scholasticism in favor of lectures on the Bible and the church fathers
Luther’s early supporters • Andreas Bodenstein of Karlstadt (1480-1541) • Nikolaus von Amsdorf (1483-1565)
Luther’s Protest Against Indulgences • In late 1517, Luther finally took up the cause that would win him immortality – indulgences • Pope Leo X (1513-1522) had earlier issued a dispensation allowing Albrecht of Brandenburg to hold at the same time the archbishoprics of Mainz and Magdeburg and the administration of a third bishopric in Halberstadt • Albrecht’s dispensation cost him a great sum, which he borrowed from the Augsburg banding house of Frugger • To repay his load, Albrecht allowed the sale of indulgences in his district, to which he was allowed to keep half of the proceeds • The sale of indulgences had taken place since 1506, for building the new basilica of St. Peters in Rome
Johann Tetzel (1465-1519) • Dominican friar • Infamous for selling indulgences in Brandenburg, just across the border from Electoral Saxony
Luther’s motives – Pastoral and Theological • Luther was unaware of the deal between Albrecht and Pope Leo, but protested on pastoral and theological grounds: indulgences create a false sense of security and thus are destructive of true Christianity • As Tetzel approached Saxony, he was refused permission to enter, yet many members of the Wittenberg congregation crossed the borders to buy letters of indulgence • Luther preached against the abuse of indulgences and prepared his memorable “Ninety-five Theses” • On October 31, 1517, he sent copies to Archbishop Albrecht of Mainz and Bishop Jerome of Brandenburg, in whose jurisdiction Wittenberg lay; whether he also nailed a copy to the castle church door in Wittenberg is a matter of controversy
The Ninety-Five Theses • Written in Latin and intended for academic debate • Far less inflammatory in tone and content than Luther’s earlier 97 Theses • However, Luther was now attacking a lucrative source of revenue for the church, and touching sensitive questions of papal authority • His theses do not however deny the right of the pope to grant indulgences; rather they question the extension of indulgences to purgatory, and imply that the pope (upon hearing the reasoning of the theses) would repudiate the practice • Within weeks the Theses were translated into German and disseminated throughout the empire • Luther had not anticipated the uproar
Luther in debate • Luther’s one-time friend, Johann of Eck, charged him with heresy; answered Luther’s Theses in a tract entitled Obelisci; Luther replied with his own tract entitled Asterici • By 1518, formal charges were being drawn up against Luther; he was then summoned to appear before the general chapter of the Augustinians in Heidelberg • Luther’s “Heidelberg Theses” argued against fee will and the control of Aristotle in theology; he also outlined a “theology of the cross” • At Heidelberg, Luther won some new adherents, most importantly Martin Bucer and Johannes Brenz (who would later become reformers in Strassburg and Wurttemberg respectively)
Leo X responds to Luther • June 1518 – Commissions a censor and examination of Luther’s books; the Dominican Sylvester Prierias drafts a reply: • “He who says that the Roman church cannot do what it actually does regarding indulgences is a heretic” • “The Roman church is representatively the college of cardinals, and moreover is virtually the supreme pontiff”
Luther’s Protector – Frederick the Wise • Luther’s case would have ended in his speedy condemnation had he not been under the powerful protection of his prince, the elector Frederick III of Saxony • How far Frederick actually sympathized with Luther (at this early stage) is uncertain; but at all events he was pround of his Wittenberg professor and averse to sending him to Rome where he would have faced certain condemnation • Frederick secured for Luther a hearing before the papal legate at the Reichstag in Augsburg • The legate, Cardinal Cajetan, was ordered by the pope not to debate with Luther, but to have him arrested if Luther failed to recant
Luther’s hearing (October 12-14, 1518) • Under pressure from Frederick, Cajetan adopted a more conciliatory policy; permitting Luther a hearing without debate • Cajetan then ordered Luther to retract his criticisms of the completeness of the papal power of indulgence; Luther refused • On October 20, Luther fled from Augsburg, having appealed ot the pope “to be better informed” • In November, back in Wittenberg, Luther appealed to a future general council; that same month Leo X issued a papal bull which defined indulgences in the same sense in which Luther had criticized them
Imperial Politics • In late 1518, the Emperor Maximillian lay dying, and the turmoil of a disputed election was looming; he would later die in January 1519 • Pope Leo X looked with disfavor on both the candidacy of Charles of Spain and that of Francis of France, because of their designs on Italy; he thus sought the good will of Elector Frederick of Saxony, whom he would gladly have seen chosen • He was no longer of a mind to go after Frederick’s favorite professor, Martin Luther • Leo X sent his nuncio, Karl von Miltitz (from Saxony) to Wittenberg with a golden rose to present to Frederick • Miltitz flattered himself that he would be able to heal the ecclesiastical dispute; but he went too far
Miltitz interviews Luther • On his own initiative, Miltitz disavowed Tetzel, and then held an interview with Martin Luther from January 4-6, 1519 • Luther agreed to keep silent on the questions in dispute if his opponents did likewise, and then to submit the case, if possible, to learned German bishops, and then write a humble letter to the pope • However, Luther’s colleageKarlstadthad agreed to a public disputation with Johann Eck, and Luther soon found himself drawn into combat
Leipzig Debate (June-July 1519) • Karlstadt was no match for Eck • Luther was finally compelled to break his silence and enter into debate himself • However, Eck’s skill at debate drove Luther to make damaging statements that his positions were in some respect those of John Huss, and that in condemning Huss the revered Council of Constance had erred • To Eck, this was a forensic triumph, declaring that anyone who could deny the infallibility of a general council was “a heathen and a publican”
Luther’s Condemnation • Luther had already rejected the inerrancy and infallibility of the pope • Now his rejection of the infallibility of general councils seemed to place him entirely outside the pale of Catholic thought • His position seemed to allow final appeal only to the Scriptures • Eck felt that the whole controversy could now quickly come to an end by a papal bull of condemnation, which he set himself to secure • Leo X finally issued this bull, Exsurgedomine, on June 15, 1520 • Luther responded by publicly burning the bull
Luther in the “thick of battle” • Luther had many supporters among the humanists, including some who were rallying behind him to lead a national conflict with Rome; Luther however renounced physical force • He saw his task as liberating Germany from a papal system of control that he was coming to regard as “Antichrist” • In May 1520, he wrote his first substantial tract outlining the doctrine of justification by faith alone, entitled On Good Works • Also written in 1520: • To the Christian Nobility of the German Nation • Babylonian Captivity of the Church • The Freedom of the Christin
Charles V (1500-1558) • House of Hapsburg; grandson of Emperor Maximilian • Also grandson of Isabella of Castile, making him the heir apparent to the Spanish throne (would become Charles I of Spain), and master of a considerable portion of Italy and the new territories in the Americas; • Also heir to the Netherlands and the Austrian territories of the house of Hapsburg • Elected in June 1519 to succeed Maximilian as Emperor of the Holy Roman Empire (i.e. Germany) • In Germany, however, Charles authority was greatly limited by the territorial powers of the local princes • Charles was a relative unknown, and no one was certain how he would side in the religious struggles of the day
Diet of Worms (January 1521) • Charles called a Reichstag to meet at Worms, partly to prepare for the outbreak of war over the rival claims of France and Spain in Italy, and partly to adjudicate the “Luther-issue” • The papal nuncio, Aleander, pressed for a prompt condemnation of Luther, especially after the papal bull Decetpontificem was issued in January 3, excommunicating Luther • But Luther had wide popular support in Germany, and Frederick, a master of diplomacy, argued that Luther never had an adequate hearing; Frederick and many other nobles believed he should be heard by the Reichstag prior to any action by that body
Diet of Worms… • Charles wavered between the two options, believing that Luther was a damnable heretic, but politician enough not to oppose German sentiment too sharply or throw away the possible advantage of making the heretic’s fate a lever in bringing the pope to the imperial side in the struggle for France • Luther was thus summoned to Worms under the protection of an imperial safe-conduct; his journey to Worms was a popular ovation • In April 1521, Luther appeared before the emperor and the Reichstag
Diet of Worms… • Before Luther was laid out a row of books, and he was asked whether he would recant of them or not • Luther requested time for reflection; a day was given to him • On the next afternoon he was once more before the assembly • He acknowledged that much was said “too strongly” during the heat of controversy, but that the substance of what he had written he could not retract, unless convinced of its wrongfulness “by the testimony of Scripture or by clear reason” • The emperor could hardly believe his ears, that anyone could deny the infallibility of a general council, and so cut the discussion short
“I cannot do otherwise. Here I stand.” Luther at Worms, 1521
The Fallout of Worms • Luther alienated the emperor, but won the respect of much of the German nobility; he further endeared himself to his own prince, Frederick of Saxony • Charles honored the safe-conduct, and Luther started on his journey home • A month later he was put under the ban of the empire and ordered to be seized for punishment and his books burned; Luther lived out the rest of his life under imperial condemnation as a heretic and rebel • Frederick had Luther “kidnapped” by admirers as he journeyed home to Wittenberg, and brought secretly to Wartburg castle, near Eisenach, where for months his hiding place was unknown
Luther at Wartburg • He went under the pseudonym, “Knight George”; he grew out his tonsure and grew a beard • From Wartburg, his attacks in writing on Roman practice only grew more intense • But the most lasting fruit of his enforced retirement was his German translation of the New Testament, begun in December 1521 and published in September of the next year • Meanwhile, back in Wittenberg, the young Philip Melanchthon began a small volume of work called Loci communes or Cardinal Points of Theology; with its publication began the systematic presentation of Lutheran theology; it would be enlarged and modified in many later editions
The Word of God • Scripture as the starting point and final authority for theology • Luther’s Doctrine of Scripture was based on the Gospel of John’s testimony that “the Word was with God, and was God” • Supremely, the Word of God was none other than God • Christ is the Word of God incarnate • Scripture testifies to Christ, the Word • What makes the Bible the Word of God is not that it is infallible, not that it can serve as a source of authority for theological religious debate, but rather the Bible is the Word of God because in it Jesus, the Word incarnate, comes to us • It was not the church that made the Bible, but the gospel, Jesus Christ, that had made both Bible and church • Final authority rests not in the church nor in the Bible, but in the gospel, in the message of Jesus Christ, who is the incarnate Word of God
