Chapter 4

1. Chapter 4 C H A P T E R 4 Psychology of Activity: Learning to Play

2. Objectives This chapter will help you do the following: • Understand the importance of enjoyment, pleasure, and satisfaction in activity and other life choices • Appreciate the role of motivation, goal setting, and feedback in the initiation and adherence to the active life • Identify your current involvement in physical activity • Plan systematic changes in your activity plan • Learn to visualize yourself as you would like to be • Develop a reinforcement schedule to reward new behaviors

3. Motivation What motivates one to engage in regular physical activity? • Few adult Americans accumulate the recommended amounts of PA recommended by CDC and ACSM. • Even fewer follow the Institute of Medicine recommendation to obtain 60 minutes per day. • Of those that do get 30 minutes most days of the week, only 20 percent do enough to improve fitness levels

4. Arousal • Five fundamental human needs are hierarchal in nature: • Physiological: food, water, sleep • Safety: shelter, security • Belonging: love, affection • Esteem: to be respected and respect others • Self-actualization: realizing potential • These needs spur people into action and motivate us to seek out desirable things.

5. Figure 4.1 Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs

6. Directing Behavior • Directing behavior refers to where and how one behaves when aroused by personal needs. • Kenyon’s reasons that people perform physical activity: • Social reasons, to meet or be with people or part of a group • Pursuit of vertigo, the thrill of speed, and change of direction while remaining in control • Aesthetic reasons such as the beauty of movement • Catharsis or relief from stress and tension • Ascetic reasons such as self-denial, discipline, training • Health and fitness (continued)

7. Directing Behavior(continued) New research has found that this list could also include • challenge, • centering, • afterglow, • good feeling, and • enhancement of appearance.

8. Pleasure Principle Ornstein and Sobel describe the role pleasure plays in motivation. • Pleasurable sensations release endorphins and opiate-like chemicals. • These chemicals satisfy physiological needs. • Eating, reproductive behavior, and caring for others are examples of pleasure-producing activities. • Pleasurable benefits from exercise may also be measurable. • Regular and moderate physical activity may be enough to bestow health benefits and healthy pleasures. (continued)

9. Pleasure Principle(continued) • Not all behaviors are immediately satisfying. • Successfully completing hard work is often the most pleasurable thing a person can do. • If you are willing to delay gratification, you can get immense gratification from completing a difficult sport- related task.

10. Types of Motivation Intrinsic motivation is working toward self-directed goals. • This type of motivation provides more long-term motivation for adherence to exercise. Extrinsic motivation is working for external reward (trophies, prizes, scholarships, social acceptance). • This type of motivation may provide fierce motivation over a short term, but after goals are achieved, adherence to exercise often declines.

11. Intrinsic Motivation • Pursuit of participation in lifelong physical activity must come from within. • This motivation comes from the top tier of Maslow’s hierarchy (self-actualization) and from the pleasure principle (self-respect). • Athletes that perform for the glory often quit their sport, but lifelong physical activity occurs because of one’s love for activity.

12. Persistence • Persistence is the ability to go on resolutely or stubbornly despite difficulties. • Persistence is the key to success in physical activity and in life. • It allows us to meet fitness, performance, weight control, and other goals. • Persistence is the foundation of adherence.

13. Adherence to Activity • Refers to maintaining loyalty, to sticking fast. • Research estimates that exercise dropout rates are as high as 50 percent. Reasons include the following: • Lack of time, poor motivation, poor social support, family needs, career pressures, “too busy,” no place to exercise, fatigue, inadequate education about benefits, inconvenience, lack of willpower (continued)

14. Adherence to Activity(continued) We can do many things to increase adherence to physical activity: • Put some fun into physical education and youth sport programs. • Increase education about benefits of exercise. • Higher incomes are positively linked to activity, and more education means more income. • Increase self-confidence and emotional stability. • Encourage smoking-cessation programs. • Increase social support from family and peers. (continued)

15. Adherence to Activity(continued) • Determine what type of activity the person enjoys. • Pleasure principle • Individual versus group structured activities • Encourage fitness club memberships paid by employers. • Make physical activity more convenient. • Meet participants’ needs. • Provide good, clean facilities.

16. Group Cohesion • A dynamic process reflected by the tendency of a group to stick together and remain united in the pursuit of its objectives and satisfaction of its members. • Group cohesion leads to an increase in adherence to an exercise program.

17. Cohesive Groups • Attend more classes • Are on time • Are less likely to drop out • Are resistant to disruptions • Experience more positive effects • Have improved attitudes toward exercise • Achieve confidence in their ability to carry out actions to satisfy situational demands (self-efficacy)

18. Climate for Adherence • With maturation, lower-order needs in Maslow’s hierarchy are fulfilled and self-actualization can be pursued. • Self-actualized people are free to determine their own lifestyle and personal goals. • They enjoy their lives as they seek to realize their capacity. (continued)

19. Climate for Adherence (continued) Even those who are self-actualized have difficulty pursuing goals. • Support from family and friends increases adherence to exercise programs. • To avoid conflicts, goals and interests should be discussed with loved ones. • Try to minimize any negative impacts of participation in sport on your social network. • Find new shared experience with family and friends in order to continue your quest for excellence. • Involving loved ones in the activities you enjoy may also help to create a supportive environment to continue to pursue pleasure through exercise. (continued)

20. Climate for Adherence (continued) Climate and geography may affect participation in physical activity. • Focht and Housenblas concluded that women who performed aerobic exercise in a natural environment have decreased anxiety, increased tranquility, positive engagement, and revitalization. • Some activities are available only in certain parts of the country; many people make the choice to relocate to areas where they can participate in activities they enjoy. • Goals and priorities must be determined, and for some that may mean lifestyle changes to live where specific physical activities can be pursued. (continued)

21. Climate for Adherence (continued) • Adapting to a current environment may be necessary, while realizing that future careers in new locations can be something the future holds. • Make the most of where you live now, adapt and pursue those things that currently make you happy, but never give up the dream that unites vocation and location.

22. Improving Adherence Locus of control places people on a continuum anchored by internal locus and external locus. • People whose locus falls in the internal range believe that they control the outcomes in their lives. • People whose locus falls in the external range believe that their lives happen by chance or fate. • Those with an internal locus of control are more likely to adhere to healthy behaviors. • Locus of control can be modified. (continued)

23. Improving Adherence(continued) Self-efficacy suggests that behaviors are influenced by the perception of acquiring mastery. • Positive experiences affect this perception. • Successful experiences or achievement of goals increase adherence. • This concept is especially important in the adoption and adaptation to early participation in exercise. • Positive reinforcement can increase self-efficacy.

24. Goal Setting • A goal is an aim or a purpose that a person seeks to accomplish. • Goals help regulate behavior and have a beneficial influence on performance of a task. • Short- and long-term goals can help in devising strategies to achieve a desired result. (continued)

25. Goal Setting(continued) Goals can be process or outcome oriented. • An example of a process-oriented goal is to run a half marathon. This type of goal setting is often more effective. • An example of an outcome-oriented goal is to run a half marathon in under 90 minutes. • These goals may be more difficult to achieve. • They need to be reasonable and adaptable. (continued)

26. Goal Setting(continued) • Long-term goals provide a target to aim for. • Short-term goals help you reach a long-term goal in incremental steps. • Write down goals and keep track of your progress. (continued)

27. Goal Setting(continued) • Set realistic goals for yourself. • When a goal becomes easy to attain, it can be adjusted to continue to challenge you. • Challenging goals get better results. • Be sure your goals are specific. • Finally, keep your goals simple. (continued)

28. Goal Setting(continued) After you have set goals, visualize yourself attaining them. • This powerful psychological tool can help with behavior change, self-belief, actions, sport technique, and self-image. • Change the action in the mind and the mind will control the body.

29. The Active Personality Does improved fitness influence personality, or are some personality types more apt to be active? • The most pronounced personality difference in fit versus low-fit men were those related to emotional stability and security. • Much of the research finds it difficult to determine if the differences are due to fitness levels or if they would exist regardless of fitness level. • More longitudinal research needs to be done in this area to develop a better understanding of the connections.

30. Perception: Listen to Your Body Dr. Gunnar Borg developed a table for athletes to use to rate their perceived exertion. • Borg realized that the brain could integrate sensory information from the body during physical activity into perceived exertion. • The brain perceives stimuli from the muscles, respiratory distress, pain, and the sensation of a pounding heart; subjective estimates of effort are related to physiological variables, such as oxygen consumption and lactate production. (continued)

31. Perception: Listen to Your Body(continued) • Preference of exertion determines the intensity you enjoy when performing the activity. • Fit individuals often have a higher preference of exertion than sedentary individuals, and training increases preference of exertion. • Raising preferred exertion can be done through schools or community organizations so more people achieve health benefits from regular, moderate physical activity.

32. This chapter looked at motivation and adherence to help you begin and maintain lifelong physical activity. Motivation involves arousal, direction, and persistence, and that intrinsic motivation causes greater persistence than extrinsic. Those with an internal locus of control, who feel more in control of their lives, are more likely to maintain an active lifestyle. Summary (continued)

33. Success and the perception of mastery reinforce activity. Realistic long-term and short-term goals will allow for more success. Active people cope better with problems in their lives. Physical activity contributes to health and resistance to stress, and, most important, it is fun. Summary(continued)