TCAP R eview

1. TCAPReview By.Barret Jones

2. Universe

3. Universe • The Inner Planets • The inner planets, also known as the terrestrial planets, are small, dense, and made of rock. Their orbits are close to the Sun. Mercury is a little larger than the Moon, but has no atmosphere. Its surface is extremely hot in the sunlight (but cold in the shade) and is heavily cratered. Venus is about the size of the Earth. Venus has a thick atmosphere of carbon dioxide and sulfuric acid, and the surface is hot enough to melt lead. When Venus is closest to Earth, it is about 25 million miles away from Earth. Earth is mostly covered by water, has a nitrogen-oxygen atmosphere, and is the only planet known to have life. Mars is about 7 times smaller than Earth. Mars has a thin atmosphere rich in carbon dioxide. The Martian surface is extremely cold (below the freezing point of water). Scientists believe that Mars may once have been warm enough for liquid water and possibly life. When Mars is closest to Earth, it is about 35 million miles away from Earth.

4. Universe • The Outer Planets • The outer planets (also known as the gas giants) are extremely large, cold, and made of gas (hydrogen, helium). Their orbits are farther out and spaced widely apart. Jupiter is the largest planet (over 1,000 times the size of Earth) with colorful cloud bands and a large storm (The Great Red Spot). Saturn has three large sets of rings surrounding it, which are visible in small backyard telescopes. Both Jupiter and Saturn have many moons (also called satellites) and are like mini-solar systems. Some of these moons could support life. Uranus has smaller thin rings, has 21 moons, and is tipped on its side. Neptune has eight moons including one large moon, Triton. Triton has active cold, nitrogen geysers that erupt frequently.

5. Universe

6. Galaxies • Stars do not exist as separate entities in space, but instead belong to large groups of other stars that are held together by the force of gravity. These large groups of stars are called galaxies. Scientists believe that there are billions of galaxies in the Universe, and that most galaxies contain billions of stars. Some galaxies may even contain trillions of stars.

7. Galaxies • There are 4 major types of galaxies. 1. Spiral Galaxy - these galaxies are relatively flat and have a bulge in the middle. These galaxies have arms that spiral out from the center. Our Milky Way galaxy is a spiral galaxy, and the Sun, our closest star, is one of the stars in it. Below is a picture of the spiral galaxy M81.

8. Galaxies • 2. Barred Spiral Galaxy - these galaxies are shaped like spiral galaxies, except for the fact that the arms begin spiraling out from a straight line of stars instead of from the center. Below is a picture of the barred spiral galaxy NGC 1672.

9. Galaxies • 3. Elliptical Galaxy - these galaxies look like a round or flattened ball and contain little gas and dust between the stars. These are often described as taking on the shape of a football. Below is a picture of the elliptical galaxy NGC 1132.

10. Galaxies • 4. Irregular Galaxy - these galaxies have no discernible shape or structure. Below is a picture of the irregular galaxy I Zwicky 18.

11. Deep-Sky Objects • Most of the objects that astronomers study are far beyond our own solar system. Examples of these objects include clusters of stars and several kinds of nebulae, or "clouds."NebulaeA nebula (plural = nebulae) is a cloud of dust and gas that exists in space, usually between stars. Nebulae can generally be classified into two categories based on their size and shape—planetary nebulae and diffuse nebulae.A planetary nebula is a relatively small, ball-shaped nebula that surrounds a star. The nebula forms from material ejected from the star's outer layers as the star begins to collapse. The Hubble Space Telescope image below shows a planetary nebula.

12. Galaxies • A diffuse nebula is a larger nebula with an irregular shape. Diffuse nebulae located near stars reflect starlight or give off their own bright light. The image below shows a diffuse nebula.

13. "Spiral Nebulae"The term "spiral nebulae" was used by astronomers before the 20th century. This term referred to a class of spiral-shaped objects believed at that time to be nebulae in our own Milky Way Galaxy. Modern astronomers now know that these objects are actually spiral galaxies located far beyond the Milky Way.

14. Globular Cluster • Star ClustersA star cluster is a group of stars bound to each other by gravity. Star clusters can be classified into two general categories—galactic clusters and globular clusters. A galactic cluster is an open cluster of stars that are loosely bound to each other by gravity. A globular cluster is a spherical cluster of stars that are tightly bound to each other by gravity. The images below show an example of each cluster type.

15. Solar System and Milky Way • The Earth, the Sun, and the seven other planets that are in orbit around the Sun are part of our solar system. Our solar system also contains all of the meteoroids, asteroids, and comets that are in orbit around the Sun and all of the moons that orbit around the eight planets. The eight planets in our solar system are: Mercury, Venus, Earth, Mars, Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus, and Neptune.

16. Our solar system is located in the Milky Way Galaxy. The Milky Way Galaxy is a spiral galaxy that contains hundreds of billions of stars. In fact, in areas on Earth without excessive light pollution, the stars of the Milky Way create a band of light that can be seen in the night sky. The entire Milky Way Galaxy is about 100,000 light years across. This is an artist's best guess at what the Milky Way might look like from outside of it. Earth is located on the Orion spur, a sort of half arm between the two major spiral arms.

17. The Sun is a medium-sized star within the Milky Way Galaxy. The Sun and our solar system are about halfway out from the center of the Milky Way Galaxy. The entire Milky Way Galaxy is about 100,000 light years across.

18. The Sun is one of hundreds of billions of stars in the Milky Way Galaxy. • The Earth is very far away from the far edge of the Milky Way Galaxy. The average distance from the Earth to the Sun is approximately 150 million kilometers. The distance from the Earth to the far edge of the Milky Way Galaxy, on the other hand, is over 75,000 light years (which is more than 710 quadrillion kilometers!). This means that the Earth is billions of times closer to the Sun than it is to the far edge of the Milky Way Galaxy.

19. Comets • Comets have the most elliptical orbits of all the objects in the solar system. They move into the inner solar system for only a short amount of time. Once they have passed around the Sun, they move back out into the outer reaches of the solar system again, often well past Pluto, and are not seen again for many years.Comets are smaller than planets, moons or asteriods. They are mostly made up of dust particles, frozen water and frozen gases. They are usually very hard to see, but as they approach the Sun these particles heat up and become much easier to see. It is the heating of these particles that causes a comet to have its distinct tail.

20. Asteroids • The majority of the asteroids in our solar system can be found in the space between Mars and Jupiter. This area is called the asteroid belt. Asteroids vary greatly in size and shape and are mostly made up of stone, iron and nickel. There are 4 main classifications of asteroids:    1. Carbon (C-type)    2. Silicate (S-type)    3. Metallic (M-type)    4. Dark (D-type)

21. Meteorites • Meteorites are only found on the surface of planets. The reason for this is that until they survive the trip through the atmosphere of a planet and actually land on the planet's surface, they are classified as meteoroids. Most meteorites are created as the result of collisions of asteroids, comets, moons, and even planets within our solar system.Classifying meteorites has proven to be a difficult thing because they are usually formed when smaller chunks of material are knocked off of larger objects. Meteorites have come from asteroids, comets, moons, and even planets. The 3 main classifications of meteorites are stony, stony iron, and iron.

22. Meteoroids • A meteoroid is an object in interplanetary space that is too small to be called an asteroid or comet. Like asteroids and comets, meteoroids revolve around the Sun. Most meteoroids are created as the result of collisions of asteroids, comets, moons, and even planets within our solar system.Classifying meteoroids has proven to be a difficult thing because they are usually formed when smaller chunks of material are knocked off of larger objects. Meteoroids have come from asteroids, comets, moons, and even planets. The 3 main classifications of meteoroids are stony, stony iron, and iron.

23. Stars • The Sun is only one of many stars in the universe. Within our galaxy there are billions of stars, and our galaxy is only one of billions in the universe. All the other stars we see appear much dimmer than the Sun because they are much farther away from us than the Sun is. While it takes less than 10 minutes for sunlight to reach the Earth, light from the nearest stars beyond our solar system takes many years to reach the Earth. For stars that are even farther away, it can take billions of years for their light to reach the Earth.

24. Solar System - Relative Distances • The diagram above is a scale model of the solar system that shows the positions of the Sun and planets as well as the relative distances between them. The relative sizes of the bodies are not represented.

25. biomes • Biomes • The term biome refers to a geographic region that has a distinct climate. A biome contains characteristic types of plants and animals adapted to the region and its climate. • The climate of a location determines which types of organisms are able to live there. Climates that are very cold are home to plants and animals that have adapted to the extreme temperatures. The same is true for climates that are extremely hot and dry. • The biotic factors of a biome are the plants and animals that live there. For example, deer, maple trees, and lichen are some of the biotic, or living, factors that characterize the deciduous forest biome. The abiotic factors of a biome are nonliving things. For example, very low temperatures and very little precipitation are some of the abiotic, or nonliving, factors that characterize the tundra biome. • The major biomes on Earth include: tropical rainforest, temperate rainforest, desert, grassland, deciduous forest, coniferous forest, tundra, estuary, savanna, and taiga.

26. biomes • Tropical Rainforest • The climate of a tropical rainforest is hot and wet. Heavy rainfall (around 150 cm per year) and year-round warm temperatures make it very humid. This climate is found near the equator. A tropical rainforest is very dense with lots of large trees that block out sunlight. Very little sunlight reaches the rainforest floor. Rainforests are very hot and wet.

27. biomes • Temperate Rainforest • The climate of a temperate rainforest is mild and wet. Temperatures are moderate and change with the seasons. Rainfall amounts are very high. Like tropical rainforests, temperate rainforests have a thick canopy of trees that block most sunlight from hitting the forest floor. However, while tropical rainforest canopies are generally broadleaf trees, temperate rainforest canopies may be broadleaf or coniferous trees. Temperate rainforests are farther from the equator than tropical rainforests and can be found in the U.S. Pacific Northwest, Asia, South America, Europe, and Australia. Temperate rainforests commonly have coniferous canopies, with smaller broadleaf plants in the understory.

28. Desert • The climate of deserts is very hot and dry. The amount of precipitation in these areas is less than the amount of water that could potentially evaporate. Deserts get less than 25 centimeters of rain every year. Desert plants and animals are adapted to store water and withstand year-round hot temperatures. • Cacti, lizards, snakes, scorpions, and mice are examples of organisms that live in desert ecosystems. Deserts are very hot and dry.

29. Grassland • Grasslands receive enough rainfall to support grasses, but not enough to support the growth of large trees. Drought and wildfire are common. Temperatures in grasslands are warm in the summer and cold in the winter. Some of the animals that can be found in a grassland ecosystem include grasshoppers, prairie dogs, and bison. Drought and wildfires are common in grasslands.

30. Deciduous Forest • The climate of a deciduous forest is temperate with four distinct seasons (spring, summer, fall, and winter). Deciduous forests have warm summers and cold winters. They have moderate precipitation throughout the year. During winter months, however, the precipitation is usually frozen and unavailable to the organisms that live there. Trees in a deciduous forest usually lose their leaves during the winter and have thick bark to conserve water and protect them from the cold. Deciduous forests have four distinct seasons.

31. Coniferous Forest • Coniferous forests are located in northern latitudes. The climate in coniferous forests is very cold and dry. Coniferous forests have cold, snowy winters and warm summers. The main types of vegetation located in coniferous forests are conifers, such as pine trees. These trees are evergreens that have needles that stay on them all year long and produce cones. Arctic foxes, wolves, and snowy owls are a few examples of the animals that live in coniferous forests. Coniferous forests are very cold and the plants that grow there are evergreens.

32. Tundra • The tundra has very low temperatures and very little precipitation. Winters in the tundra are long and extremely cold; summers are short, mild, and cool. The animals living in tundra ecosystems have adaptations that allow them to stay warm in the very low temperatures. For instance, Arctic foxes, grizzly bears, and ermines (a kind of weasel) all have thick fur that protects them from the cold. The tundra is very cold and dry. Tundra is characterized by its frozen subsoil, which makes only a small layer of soil available to plant life. This limits the plants that can grow to small low growing plants such as mosses and grasses and makes it impossible for trees to grow.

33. Estuary • An estuary is an area in which fresh water and salty ocean waters mix together. These areas may include bays, mouths of rivers, salt marshes, and lagoons. These brackish (salt mixed with fresh) water ecosystems shelter and feed marine life, birds, and other wildlife with nutrients from the ocean. Estuaries provide a place where young animals can grow up. The plants in estuaries are marsh grasses and other plants that are adapted to water levels that change with the tides. Muskrats, herons, egrets, shrimp, and crabs are animals often found in estuaries.

34. Savanna • A savanna is a dry tropical grassland where trees are present but more widely scattered than in most rainforest ecosystems. The savanna climate has a temperature range of 68° to 86°F. Savannas receive around 125 centimeters of rain every year, with most of the rain falling during the summer. Zebras, giraffes, lions, and acacia trees are found in the savannas of Africa. Giraffes have long necks that allow them to reach tree leaves.

35. Taiga • The taiga is the largest continental biome. It experiences long, cold winters; short, warm summers; and low precipitation. It is characterized by coniferous forests. Taiga covers most of Canada and Siberia and is not found in the Southern Hemisphere. The taiga is characterized by coniferous forests; long, cold winters; short, warm summers; and low precipitation.

36. Temperate Prairie • A temperate prairie biome is found in the dry temperate interiors of continents. This biome is characterized by rich soil; moderate rainfall; a hot, dry climate; tall, thick grasses; isolated trees; and herds of grazing animals. The temperate prairie biome is characterized by thick, tall grasses.

37. Marine • The marine biome, or saltwater biome, is the largest on Earth, covering about 75% of the Earth's surface. Because land heats up and cools down much more quickly than water, the marine biome experiences a smaller degree of temperature change than the terrestrial biome. The marine biome has a major impact on the weather and climate patterns of the terrestrial biome. The marine biome is the largest on Earth.

38. Chaparral • Chaparral is a shrubland biome that is defined by mild, wet winters and hot, dry summers. During the summer, wildfires are common. The plants and animals in chaparral biomes are adapted to fire and drought. The chaparral biome is covered in shrubs, dwarf trees, and grasses.

39. Electricity Electrical energy, also referred to as electricity, is used to run many different machines and tools. For example, electricity is used to power:   • computers                  • heaters                            • hair dryers                   • lights                           • refrigerators                 • stereos

40. CONDUCTORS & INSULATORS • Although very pure water such as distilled water is an insulator, most water, such as lake water, rain water, or tap water, does conduct electricity. Wire is made of metal, which is a conductor. The following materials are electrical insulators:wood • plastic • cloth • rubber • The following materials are electrical conductors:metals • water* The coating on the outside of electrical cords is made of plastic or rubber, which are insulators.

41. CIRCUITS 1. Energy source—Every circuit must have a source of electrical energy, such as a battery, which pushes the electric current around the circuit. The symbol for the energy source in a circuit diagram is: A circuit, such as the one shown above, must have an energy source, a load, and a means to carry the electricity through the circuit (usually wires). Each of these parts is discussed below:

42. 2. Wire—Every circuit must have a material that connects the parts of the circuit together and carries electric current. Often, this material is metal wire wrapped in a coating of plastic or rubber. The symbol for the wire in a circuit diagram is:

43. 3. Load—The load, or receiver, such as a light bulb or appliance, changes electrical energy to another kind of energy like light, heat, motion, or sound. The symbol for the receiver in a circuit diagram is:

44. 4. Switch—Circuits usually have switches. If closed, the switch completes the circuit and allows current to flow. But if the switch is open, it prevents current from flowing. Sometimes, the switch is not shown in circuit diagrams. However, there is a symbol that represents the switch. It is:

45. OPEN & CLOSED CIRCUITSAn electrical circuit must run in a complete loop. When there is no break in the loop, it is a closed circuit. When there is a break in the loop, it is an open circuit. Electricity will not flow in an open circuit.Some examples of closed circuits are shown below:

46. Open circuits are incomplete circuits. These are "broken" circuits in which there is no complete path for current flow.Some examples of open circuits are shown below:

47. SERIES & PARALLEL CIRCUITSThere are two main types of circuits: series circuits and parallel circuits.In a series circuit, such as the one shown below, all parts of the circuit are connected in a single loop.

48. A disadvantage of using series circuits is that a break anywhere in the path stops the flow of electricity in the entire circuit so any receivers connected to the circuit turn off. Some Christmas lights are made using series circuits. If one bulb burns out, all the lights on that string turn off. In a parallel circuit, receivers are connected to different branches. An example of a parallel circuit is shown below.

49. The advantage to this type of circuit is that if there is a break in one branch, the other branches (and the receivers attached to them) will still work.

50. That’s • All (>:D)-