Cold War and Culture: The Eisenhower Years, 1952-1960

1. Cold War and Culture: The Eisenhower Years, 1952-1960 “America has been in existence for 150 years and this is the level she has reached. We have existed not quite 42 years and in another seven years we will be on the same level as America. When we catch you up, in passing you by, we will wave to you.” -Nikita Khrushchev, July 24, 1959

2. The 50s • The 1950s have the popular image of the “happy days,” when the nation prospered and teens enjoyed the new beat of rock and roll music • While middle-class suburbanites enjoyed their chrome-trimmed cars and tuned in “I Love Lucy” on their new television sets, the Cold War and threat of nuclear destruction loomed in the background The maximum territorial extent of countries in the world under Soviet influence, after the Cuban Revolution of 1959 and before the official Sino-Soviet split of 1961

3. The Election of 1952 • In the last year of Truman’s presidency, Americans were looking for relief from the Korean War and an end to political scandals • Republicans nominated Dwight D. Eisenhower (“Ike”) and Richard Nixon for his running mate • The Democrats nominated Adlai Stevenson, a popular governor of Illinois (the darling of liberals for confronting McCarthyism) Presidential election results map. Red denotes states won by Eisenhower/Nixon, Blue denotes those won by Stevenson/Kefauver. Orange is the electoral vote for Walter Burgwyn Jones by an Alabama faithless elector. Numbers indicate the number of electoral votes allotted to each state.

4. Campaign Highlights • Eisenhower had a spotless record, but his running mate Nixon had used campaign funds for his own personal use • Nixon managed to defend himself and save his political future by effectively using television to portray his positive virtues • In his so called Checkers speech, Nixon won the support of millions of viewers by tugging at their heartstrings • With his wife and daughters around him, he emotionally vowed never to return the gift of their dog Checkers • What became the decisive issue was Eisenhower’s pledge to go to Korea and end the war • Eisenhower won 55% of the popular vote and an electoral college landslide of 442 to 89 Eisenhower

5. Domestic Politics • As president, Eisenhower adopted a style of leadership that emphasized the delegation of authority • He filled his cabinet with successful corporate executives, such as General Motors’ head Charles Wilson Modern Republicanism: -Eisenhower was a fiscal conservative who curbed federal spending -as a moderate on domestic issues, Eisenhower accepted and in some instances extended New Deal programs Charles Wilson

6. Domestic Politics continued… • During Eisenhower’s two terms in office: • Social Security was extended to 10 million more Americans • The minimum wage was raised • Additional public housing was built • Created the Department of Health, Education, and Welfare under Oveta Culp Hobby, the first woman in a Republican cabinet • The creation of a soil-bank program that reduced farm production and thereby increased farm income • He opposed the ideas of federal healthcare insurance and federal aid to education • This so called balanced and moderate approach was dubbed “modern Republicanism” • Critics called it “the bland leading the bland”

7. Interstate Highway System • The most permanent legacy of the Eisenhower years was the passage in 1956 of the Highway Act which: • Authorized the construction of 42,000 miles liking major cities • Justified new taxes on fuel, tires, and vehicles to bolster national defense • Created an immense public works project creating jobs • Promoted the trucking industry, accelerated the growth of suburbs, and contributed to a more homogeneous national culture • Hurt the railroads and environment-little attention was paid to public transportation Interstate Highways or in the cities-Freeways

8. Prosperity • Eisenhower’s domestic legislation was modest and during his years in office: • The nation enjoyed a steady growth rate (inflation at 1.5%) • Deficits fell in relation to the national wealth • Per-capital income increased • The American family had twice the real income of a comparable family during the boom years of the 1920s • The postwar economy gave Americans the highest standard of living in the world

9. The Election of 1956 • Toward the end of his term, Eisenhower suffered a heart attack and Democrats questioned his health for a second term • The Democrats ran Adlai Stevenson again, however the results were the same-Eisenhower won by an even greater number than in 1952 • It was a personal victory only-the Democrats retained control of both houses of Congress Presidential election results map. Red denotes states won by Eisenhower/Nixon, Blue denotes those won by Stevenson/Kefauver. Orange is the electoral vote for Walter Burgwyn Jones by an Alabama faithless elector. Numbers indicate the number of electoral votes allotted to each state.

10. Eisenhower and the Cold War • Most of Eisenhower’s attention was focused on foreign policy and various international crises arising from the Cold War • The experienced diplomat who helped shape U.S. foreign policy throughout Eisenhower’s presidency was Secretary of State John Foster Dulles John Foster Dulles served as U.S. Secretary of State under Republican President Dwight D. Eisenhower from 1953 to 1959. He was a significant figure in the early Cold War era, advocating an aggressive moralistic stance against communism throughout the world.

11. Dulles’ Diplomacy • Dulles was critical of Truman’s policy of containment as too passive • He advocated a “new look” to U.S. foreign policy that: • Challenged the Soviets and Chinese • Wanted to liberate captive nations of Eastern Europe and encouraged the Nationalist government of Taiwan to resist “Red” China • Advocated the idea of pushing Communist powers to the brink of war to force them to back down or face nuclear annihilation (brinkmanship) Dulles with president Eisenhower in 1956

12. Massive Retaliation • Dulles advocated placing greater reliance on nuclear weapons and air power (spend less on conventional forces of the army and navy) • In theory, this would save money, help balance the budget, and increase pressure on potential enemies • In 1953, the U.S. developed the Hydrogen bomb which could level cities (the Soviets developed the bomb within a year after) • To some, the policy of massive retaliation appeared more like a policy for mutual extinction • Nuclear weapons were a powerful deterrent against direct conflict between the superpowers, however, smaller wars could not be prevented Operation Castle became the highest-yield nuclear test series ever conducted by the United States.

13. Unrest in the Third World • The collapse of colonial empires after WWII may have been the single most important development of the postwar era • Between 1947 and 1962, dozens of colonies in Asia and Africa gained independence • These Third World nations often lacked stable political and economic institutions –this made many of them reliant on the U.S. or Soviet Union for aid Muhammad Ali Jinnah, the founder and first Governor General of Pakistan, delivering the opening address of the 1947 Constitutional Assembly, explaining the foundations for the new state of Pakistan.

14. Covert Actions • Part of the “new look” in Eisenhower’s conduct of U.S. foreign policy was the growing use of covert action • In 1953 the CIA played a role in overthrowing the government in Iran that had tried to nationalize the holding of foreign oil companies • The overthrow of an elected government allowed for the return of Reza Pahlavi, or the shah (monarch) of Iran The Shah and his wife left Iran on 16 January 1979

15. Covert Actions... • The shah provided the West with favorable oil prices and made enormous purchases of American arms • In Guatemala (1954), the CIA overthrew a leftist government that threatened American business interests • It seemed that America supported corrupt and often ruthless dictators if those dictators were in opposition to Communism (led to poor relations in Latin America) The Shah and his wife left Iran on 16 January 1979

16. Asia Delegates sign the Korean Armistice Agreement in P’anmunjŏm, Korea Korean armistice: -soon after Eisenhower’s inauguration, he went to Korea to visit U.N. forces and see what could be done to end the war -With diplomacy, the threat of nuclear war, and the death of Stalin in March 1953 China and North Korea agreed to an armistice and exchange of prisoners -Korea would remain divided near the 38th parallel, and despite years of negotiations, no peace treaty was ever concluded

17. Asia continued… Fall of Indochina: -after losing their colonial possessions to the Japanese in WWII, the French attempted to reassert themselves in Southeast Asia (Indochina) -support for nationalists and Communists led by Ho Chi Minh resisted -the U.S. sent aid to the French and the Soviets and Chinese aided the Viet Minh guerrillas -after a disastrous defeat at Dien Bien Phu, the French tried to convince Eisenhower to send American troops (Eisenhower decline) -At the Geneva Conference, the French agreed to give up Indochina, which was divided into the independent nations of Cambodia, Laos, and Vietnam

18. Division of Vietnam • By the terms of the Geneva Convention, Vietnam was temporarily divided at the 17th parallel until a general election could be held • The new nation became divided as two hostile governments took power on either side (in the North, Ho Chi Minh and the South, Ngo Dinh Diem) • The general election to unite Vietnam was never held because South Vietnam’s government feared that the Communists would win Ho Chi Minh

19. Division of Vietnam • From 1955 to 1961, the U.S. gave over 1 billion in economic and military aid to South Vietnam • Eisenhower justified this action by making an analogy to a row of dominoes • According to the domino theory (later to become famous), if South Vietnam fell under Communist control, one nation after another in Southeast Asia would also fall Ho Chi Minh

20. SEATO • To prevent the “fall” to communism of South Vietnam, Laos, and Cambodia, Dulles put together a regional defense pact called the Southeast Asia Treaty Organization (SEATO) • Eight nations, U.S., Great Britain, France, Australia, New Zealand, the Philippines, Thailand, and Pakistan, would agree to protect each other in case of attack within the region The leaders of some of the SEATO nations in front of the Congress Building in Manila, hosted by Philippine President Ferdinand Marcos on 24 October 1966

21. The Middle East • In the Middle East, the U.S. had the difficult balancing act of maintaining friendly ties with the oil-rich Arab states while at the same time supporting the new state of Israel • Israel was created in 1948 under U.N. auspices, after a civil war in the British mandate territory of Palestine left the land divided between the Israelis and the Palestinians The term "Middle East" may have originated in the 1850s in the British India Office.However, it became more widely known when American naval strategist Alfred Thayer Mahan used the term in 1902to "designate the area between Arabia and India“.

22. Suez Crisis Suez Crisis: -led by Arab nationalist General Gamal Nasser, Egypt asked the U.S. for funds to build the ambitious Aswan Dam project -U.S. refused, primarily because of Egypt’s threat to Israel -the Soviets agreed to provide limited aid for the project (not enough) -Nasser sensed an opportunity to gain more funding by precipitating a international crisis when he seized the British and French owned Suez Canal The location of the Suez Canal, which connects the Mediterranean and the Indian Ocean via the Red Sea.

23. Suez Crisis cont... -this act threatened Western Europe’s supply line to Middle Eastern oil -in a surprise attack, Britain, France, and Israel retook the canal -the U.S. sponsored a U.N. resolution condemning the invasion of Egypt forcing the invading powers to withdraw The location of the Suez Canal, which connects the Mediterranean and the Indian Ocean via the Red Sea.

24. Eisenhower Doctrine • The U.S. quickly replaced Britain and France as the leading Western influence in the Middle East, but it faced growing Soviet influence in Egypt and Syria • In a policy pronouncement in 1957, Eisenhower pledged the support of the U.S. to any Middle Eastern nation threatened by communism (example: Lebanon (1958)-14,000 U.S. marines prevented an outbreak of civil war between Christians and Muslims) Eisenhower and Vice President Richard Nixon with their host, King Saud of Saudi Arabia, Washington 1957

25. OPEC and Oil • In Eisenhower’s last year in office, 1960, the Arab nations of Saudi Arabia, Kuwait, Iraq, and Iran joined Venezuela to form the Organization of Petroleum Exporting Countries • The combination of growing Western dependence on Middle Eastern oil, spreading Arab nationalism, and a conflict between Israelis and Palestinians, complicated American foreign policy in the region Current OPEC members

26. U.S.-Soviet Relations • In terms of U.S. security, nothing was more critical than U.S. diplomatic relations with its chief political and military rival-the Soviet Union • Throughout Eisenhower’s presidency, the relations between the two superpowers fluctuated between relative calm and extreme tension Superpower rivalry

27. Spirit of Geneva • After Stalin’s death in 1953, Eisenhower called for a slowdown of the arms race and presented to the United Nations an “atoms for peace plan” (Soviets also showed signs of peace; established peace with Turkey and Greece) • By 1955, a desire for peace prompted a summit meeting in Geneva, Switzerland • Soviet premier Nikolai Bulganin (less than a year later replaced by Nikita Khrushchev) and Eisenhower discussed an agreement called “open skies,” allowing aerial photography over their territory to lessen the chance of a surprise nuclear strike • The Soviets rejected the proposal, however, the “spirit of Geneva” was widely seen as the first thaw in the Cold War

28. Hungarian Revolt • The Soviet Union after World War II dominated Hungary • Imre Nagy, a popular liberal Hungarian Communist leader formed a new government • He called for free elections, denounced the Warsaw Pact, and demanded that all Soviet troops leave Hungary (October of 1956) • The Soviet response was swift-tanks rolled into Hungary and put down the revolt • An estimated 30,000 Hungarians were killed and Nagy was executed • The United States and the U.N. did nothing (Ended Dulles’ talk of liberating Eastern Europe and the Soviets vetoed any U.N. resolutions that condemned actions by the Soviets) Time's "Man of the Year" for 1956 was the Hungarian Freedom Fighter.

29. Sputnik Shock • After Stalin’s death in 1953, Nikita Khrushchev gained power and believed that communism could prevail peacefully by competing with the United States scientifically and economically • The space race was a key area of competition for the Soviets and the Americans • The Soviets struck first by launching Sputnik (a satellite) October 4, 1957; Americans were shocked • Americans blamed the schools as scientifically inadequate Sputnik I: beep beep…

30. Sputnik Shock • In 1958, Congress responded with the National Defense and Education Act-giving millions of dollars to schools for science and foreign language education • In the same year, the National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA) was created to guide the building of missiles (rockets) and explore outer space • Less than a year later after a humiliating launch that blew up, the United States finally launched their first satellite into orbit Sputnik I: beep beep…

31. The Second Berlin Crisis • Khrushchev boasted, “We will bury capitalism” and told the United States and the West that they had 6 months to leave West Berlin • The United States refused, and instead, Eisenhower invited the Soviet premier to visit the United States • At the presidential retreat of Camp David in Maryland, the two agreed to put off the crisis and schedule another summit conference in Paris for 1960 Nikita Khrushchev

32. U-2 Incident • U-2 spy planes were flying over Soviet territory since 1957, and the Soviets were aware of these flights starting in 1958 • A U-2 plane, piloted by Francis Gary Powers, was shot down in 1960 • The U-2 incident caused tension between the U.S. and Soviets and effective killed the friendly “spirit of Camp David” • Eisenhower took full responsibility for the incident and Khrushchev called off the Paris summit Francis Gary Powers

33. Communism in Cuba • Perhaps more alarming than any other Cold War development during the Eisenhower years was the loss of Cuba to communism • Fidel Castro overthrew Fulgencio Batista in 1959 and nationalized American owned businesses and properties in Cuba • Eisenhower retaliated by cutting of trade which forced Castro to seek help from the Soviets • Within a year, Castro announced the creation of a communist state which prompted Eisenhower to authorize a CIA mission to train Cuban exiles and plan an attack to liberate the island Fidel Castro becomes the leader of Cuba as a result of the Cuban Revolution

34. Eisenhower’s Legacy • After leaving the White House: • Eisenhower claimed credit for checking communist aggression and keeping the peace without the loss of American lives in combat • Relaxed tensions between the U.S. and the Soviet Union • He initiated the first arms limitations by voluntarily suspending above ground testing of nuclear weapons • In his farewell address, Eisenhower warned against the negative impact of the Cold war on U.S. society • He also warned the nation to “guard against the acquisition of unwarranted influence…by the military industrial complex” Eisenhower’s White House portrait

35. Popular Culture of the Fifties • Among white suburbanites, the 1950s were marked by conformity to social norms • Consensus about political issues and conformity in social behavior were safe harbors for Americans troubled by foreign ideology of communism • At the same time, the fifties were the hallmark of a consumer-driven mass economy The Fifties

36. Consumer Culture and Conformity • Television, advertising, and the middle-class move to the suburbs contributed mightily to the growing homogeneity of American culture Television: -television programming was dominated by three national networks which presented viewers with a bland menu of comedies, westerns, quiz shows, and sporting events -critics of TV, such as FCC chairman Newton Minnow, called this new media a “vast wasteland” and worried about its impact on children -yet TV became a cultural phenomenon

37. Consumer Culture and Conformity continued… Advertising: -in all the media, aggressive advertising by name brands also promoted common material wants -the introduction of suburban shopping malls and plastic credit cards provided quick gratification for Americans -the proliferation of McDonald’s yellow arches on the roadside was an example of how successful new marketing techniques and standardized products became in America Paperbacks and records: -Americans read more books than ever before (introduction of paperbacks) -long-playing (LP) records become mass produced and cheap -Teenagers fell in love with Rock and Roll music (Elvis Presley became the king!) In the mid-1950s Elvis Presley became the leading figure of the newly popular sound of rock and roll

38. Corporate America • In the business world, conglomerates with diversified holdings began to dominate such industries as food processing, hotels, transportation, insurance, and banking • For the first time in history, more American held white-collar jobs than blue-collar • Large corporations of this era promoted teamwork and conformity (especially dress code) • Big Unions became more powerful after the merger of the AF of L and the CIO in 1955 (unions became more conservative as blue-collar workers enjoyed the middle-class) • For most Americans, conformity was a small price to pay for the new affluence of a home in the suburbs, a new automobile, good schools for children, and a possible vacation (Disneyland opens 1955) Sleeping Beauty Castle, the icon of Disneyland Park

39. Religion • Organized religion expanded dramatically after WWII with the building of thousands of new churches and synagogues • Will Herberg’s book Protestant, Catholic, Jew commented on the new religious tolerance of the times and the lack of interest in doctrine, as religious membership became a source of both individual identity and socialization

40. Women’s Role • The baby boom and running a home in the suburbs made homemaking a full-time job for millions of women • In the postwar period, the traditional view of a women’s role as caring for children and the home was reaffirmed in the mass media and in the best-selling self-help book-Baby and Child Care (Dr. Benjamin Spock) • At the same time, evidence of dissatisfaction was growing, especially among well-educated women of the middle class • More married women, especially as they reached middle age, entered the workforce • Yet women in the fifties were viewed as wives and mothers, and women’s lower wages reflected this attitude

41. Social Critics • Not everyone approved of the social trends of the 1950s: • In The Lonely Crowd, Harvard sociologist David Riesman criticized the replacement of “inner-directed” individuals in society with “other-directed” conformists • In The Affluent Society, the economist John Kenneth Galbraith wrote about the failure of wealthy Americans to address the need for increased social spending for the common good • The sociologist C. Wright Mills portrayed dehumanizing corporate worlds in White Collar (1951) and threats to freedom in The Power Elite (1956)

42. Social Critics continued… Novels: -some of the most popular novelists of the fifties wrote about the individual’s struggle against conformity -J.D. Salinger provided a classic commentary on “phoniness” as viewed by a troubled teenager in The Catcher in the Rye (1951) -Joseph Heller satirized the stupidity of the military and war in Catch-22 (1961)\ Beatniks: -a group of rebellious writers and intellectuals made up the Beat generation of the 1950s -Led by Jack Kerouac and poet Allen Ginsberg, the Beatniks advocated spontaneity, use of drugs, and rebellion against social standards -the Beatniks became the models for the youth rebellion of the sixties Beat, Beat, Beat by William F. Brown

43. Key Names, Events, and Terms • Dwight Eisenhower • Richard Nixon • Modern Republicanism • Oveta Culp Hobby • Soil-bank program • Highway Act (1956); interstate highway system • John Foster Dulles; brinkmanship • Massive retaliation • Third World • Iran • Covert action • Indochina • Geneva Conference • Ho Chi Minh • Vietnam • Domino theory • Southeast Asia Treaty Organization (SEATO) • Suez Canal crisis (1956) • Eisenhower Doctrine • Organization of Petroleum Exporting Countries (OPEC) • “spirit of Geneva” • Open skies crisis • Nikita Khrushchev • Peaceful coexistence • Hungarian revolt • Warsaw Pact

44. Key Names, Events, and Terms • Sputnik • National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA) • U-2 incident • Fidel Castro • Cuba • Military-industrial complex • Corporate America • Consumer culture • The Lonely Crowd, David Riesman • The Affluent Society, John Kenneth Galbraith • Beatniks

45. Question U.S. intervention in Iran in 1953 and in Guatemala in 1954 are examples of • the use of covert action by CIA • the application of the Eisenhower Doctrine • U.S. efforts to stop the proliferation of nuclear weapons • the use of U.S. troops to support democratic governments • the policy of brinkmanship

46. Answer A: the use of covert action by CIA

47. Question The United States during the Eisenhower years was characterized by • decreased spending for defense • breakup of conglomerates • increased tension between Protestants, Catholics, and Jews • increased middle-class affluence • radical protests on college campuses

48. Answer D: increased middle-class affluence