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Modern European History II HIS-107

Modern European History II HIS-107. Unit 5 – Europe’s World Supremacy, 1871-1914. Imperialism. Definitions The process of extending one state’s control over another Formal imperialism Colonialism or direct control Colonizing countries annexed territories outright

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Modern European History II HIS-107

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  1. Modern European History IIHIS-107 Unit 5 – Europe’s World Supremacy, 1871-1914

  2. Imperialism • Definitions • The process of extending one state’s control over another • Formal imperialism • Colonialism or direct control • Colonizing countries annexed territories outright • Established new governments • Informal imperialism • Conquering nations reached agreements with indigenous leaders and governed through them • Allowed weaker state to maintain its independence while reducing its sovereignty • Carving out zones of European sovereignty and privilege

  3. Imperialism • “Old imperialism” • Maritime and mercantile • Mostly done through informal imperialism • “New imperialism” • Arose during the 19th century with the Industrial Revolution • Focused more on formal imperialism • Demand for raw materials • Built up newly acquired territories to make them more productive • Aspired towards political and territorial domination • Exerted influence on governments already in place

  4. Imperialism • Nineteenth-century imperialism • Appeared against the backdrop of industrialization, liberal revolutions, and the rise of nation-states • The need for raw materials • Bringing progress to the world • Imperialists sought to distance themselves from earlier histories of conquest • Guided more by “settlement and discipline” than independent entrepreneurial activity • Colonial resistance and rebellion forced Europeans to develop new strategies of rule • British granted self-government to Canada, Australia, and New Zealand • 19th empires established carefully codified racial hierarchies

  5. Imperialism • Why the change over? • After 1875, Europe was dominant both economically and militarily • Non-European states were entering a period of decline • Included the Ottomans, Persians, Chinese, and Japanese • No longer had to bow down to the existing governments in non-European states • Europeans had military capabilities that the non-Europeans did not possess • Battles were typically one-sided in favor of the Europeans • Because of this, non-Europeans were forced to accept either a new government or a European “advisor”

  6. Incentives and Motives • There were many incentives for taking new colonies • Acquisition of raw materials • Europeans were used to a certain quality of life • Many goods were only available from tropical regions • Included tea, coffee, coconuts and jute (used in ropes and bags) • Neomercantilism • Push for the creation of new markets • Wanted to create favorable balance of trade • Raised tariffs to prevent buying of imports • Used raw materials from colonies to make domestic goods • Goal: to accumulate as much wealth as possible

  7. Incentives and Motives • The profit motive • Investments in non-European countries brought a higher rate of return • Natives provided cheap labor • Strategic and nationalist motives • International rivalries fueled the belief that national interests were at stake • The French supported imperialism as a means of restoring national honor • The British worried about German and French industrialization and losing world markets • The link between imperialism and nation-building

  8. Incentives and Motives • Socialist critics • J. A. Hobson (1858–1940), Imperialism (1902) • Imperialism was driven by a small group of financiers • International capitalists • Investors sought out secure investment opportunities in colonies • The manufacturing, military, and armaments interest • Lenin (1870–1924) • Imperialism: The Highest Stage of Capitalism (1917) • Imperialism as an essential stage in the development of capitalism • Demand for raw materials made colonization a necessary investment • The internal contradictions of capitalism produced imperialism • The overthrow of capitalism would check imperialism

  9. Incentives and Motives • Profits were a huge incentive to countries like Britain and France • 1/8 of the Britain’s wealth was invested in overseas colonies • France had 1/10 • Most of the wealth was targeted to Egypt, South Africa and Asia • Did invest in eastern Europe as well by supplying Russia with loans • Germany was the only major country not heavily investing in colonies • What little was invested went to the Ottoman Empire, Africa, and China

  10. Incentives and Motives • Another motive was national security • This was tied in to the economic well-being of the country • Joseph Chamberlain (1836-1914) believed that Britain should be “a great self-sustaining and self-protecting empire” • With economic profits, the country could look after its population • Wanted to strengthen the empire through economic controls • Did the working class benefit from imperialism? • Somewhat • Higher wages due to the inflow of low-priced colonial goods • Left a higher standard of living • Did not produce the angry proletariat class the Marxists were hoping for

  11. Incentives and Motives • Imperialism was also seen as a crusade • A way for the white man to “civilize” the natives • Strengthened by the concept of Social Darwinism • That whites were “more fit” than other races • Many traveled to the colonies not so much for profit but to improve the lives of the native populations • This included building schools and hospitals • This “humanitarianism” was still tied to European self-interests

  12. Decline of the Ottoman Empire

  13. The Collapse of the Ottoman Empire • Ottoman Empire in the 1850s • Very diverse population • Mix of religions • Different forms of Islam including orthodox and Wahhabis • Jews and Greek Orthodox Christians who always lived in this region • Ruling class were the Turks and majority were Muslims • Muslims followed their own laws • Jews and Christians had their own separate system of laws and government • Disputes between Europeans were held in European courts • Disputes between a European and a Muslim were held in a Muslim court but with a European observer

  14. The Collapse of the Ottoman Empire • There was no sense of national unity • The “sick man of Europe” during the 1850s • Russia took the Caucasus and Crimea • France occupied Algeria • Both Serbia and Greece received some form of independence • Wahhabis were gaining control over most of Arabia • The effects of the Crimean War (1854-1856) • Nationalism that bolstered Europe was going to start affecting the Ottomans • Even though they were on the winning side, the war exposed its political and military weaknesses

  15. The Collapse of the Ottoman Empire • Hatt-I Humayun (1856) • Ottoman’s attempt at major reform throughout the empire • Created national citizenship for all persons inside the empire • Abolished the civil authority of religious hierarchies • Guaranteed equality before the law • Opened up government and army positions to non-Muslims • Led to a period of Ottoman revival • For 20 years, the reform movement grew • There was some resistance but was not effective • The new sultan Abdülhamid II even proclaimed a new constitution in 1876

  16. Sultan Abdülhamid II • (1876-1909)

  17. The Collapse of the Ottoman Empire • Repression after 1876 • While he initially supported the reform measures, Abdülhamid II became an autocratic ruler • Became increasingly paranoid of westerners and reformers • Instituted a period of repression lasting his entire regime • Many were forced to leave the empire • Young Turks fled to Europe in hopes of again returning to Europe to dethrone Abdul the Damned • Others put up some form of resistance • Included Armenians, Bulgars, Macedonians, and Cretans • April Uprising (1876) led to the massacre of thousands of Bulgarians • Hamidian Massacres (1894-1896) led to the death of at least 80,000 Armenians

  18. The Collapse of the Ottoman Empire • Europeans were shocked at what was taking place in the Empire • At the same time, the thought of a reformed, newly invigorated Empire was not what the Europeans had wanted • Russo-Turkish War (1877-1878) • Fought mainly in the Caucuses and the Balkans • Russia hoped to regain its territories lost in the Crimean War • Also played on the growing pan-Slavism of the time and the April Uprisings in Bulgaria • Russia easily defeated the Turks

  19. The Collapse of the Ottoman Empire • Treaty of San Stefano (1878) • Ottomans recognized the independence of Romania, Serbia, and Montenegro • Also recognized the autonomy of Bulgaria • The Great Powers were not enthralled with this arrangement • Threw off the balance of power in eastern Europe in favor of the Russians • Britain was especially fearful of Russian influence over the Middle East now that it was a major stockholder in the Suez Canal

  20. The Collapse of the Ottoman Empire • Congress of Berlin (1878) • Organized by the Great Powers to reorganize the Balkans • Designed to prevent an Anglo-Russian War • Illustrated the growing weakness of the Ottoman Empire • Conditions included those set down in the Treaty of San Stefano but: • A much smaller Bulgaria • Territory going to Austria-Hungary and Russia • Macedonia was returned to the Turks who promised reform • Not everyone was satisfied with the outcome • Russia was annoyed at Europe for taking away key territories it had gained, including influence over Bulgaria

  21. The Collapse of the Ottoman Empire • Egypt was technically autonomous in the Empire • During the 1850s and 60s, Egypt worked on economic development and reform • Modernized its infrastructure and legal system • Allowed the French to build the Suez Canal • Borrowed most of the money for these reforms from Britain and France • By 1879, Egypt was in economic distress due to its debts • Paid off some by selling shares of the Suez Canal to Britain • The current khedive, Ismail Pasha, was forced to abdicate under pressure from Britain and France

  22. The Collapse of the Ottoman Empire • Nationalism sparked during this period • Mainly in resentment to the growing influence of foreigners • Led by Colonel Arabi, riots broke out in Alexandria • Britain responded by sending troops into Egypt and defeating Arabi • Included a naval bombardment of Alexandria in 1882 • Troops were to remain only temporarily but stayed until 1956 • Britain supported a puppet government led by Tewfik Pasha • Egypt became a British protectorate

  23. The Collapse of the Ottoman Empire • France was upset about the presence of the British in Egypt • Concentrated its efforts on Algeria setting up a colony there • It also set up protectorates in Tunisia and in Morocco • End of Abdülhamid’s Reign (1909) • A Young Turk revolution broke out in the summer of 1908 • Called for an end to repression and a promise for liberal reforms • Abdülhamid agreed to implement the 1876 constitution • In April 1909, he led a counter-revolution against the Young Turks • The government finally deposed of him on April 27, 1909

  24. Africa in 1870

  25. Scramble for Africa • Prior to 1870, Africa was a mysterious continent that had yet to reveal its secrets to the Europeans • During this period, Scot David Livingstone and journalist H.M. Stanley explored the innermost regions of the continent • Travelled along the Zambezi River and “discovered” Victoria Falls • Stanley realized the economic opportunities of Africa and went back to Europe looking for financial backers • Leopold II of Belgium (1865-1909) • Believed that overseas colonies would make Belgium a great state • Worked with Stanley to gain colonies for Belgium

  26. Scramble for Africa • International Congo Association (1878) • Set up by Leopold II, Stanley, and a few financiers • Private enterprise • Stanley traveled to western Africa • Signed treaties with local elites • Opened the Congo to commercial exploitation (palm oil, rubber, diamonds) • This led a flurry of other explorers and financiers to lay claims to the lands in inland Africa • Germans began claiming east Africa • French began traveling down the Congo River as well • There was a mindset of get it before someone else claimed it

  27. Scramble for Africa • Berlin Conference of 1885 • Called for by Bismarck • Goals: • Set up the territories of the Congo Association as an international state • Draft a code governing the way Europeans were to acquire territory in Africa • The Congo would be open to free trade and commerce • Terms for claiming territory: • Those with coastal claims also had claims to inland territories • Must have boundaries on paper and troops or administrators in place • Formal notice must be given to the other European powers over what territories were being claimed

  28. Scramble for Africa • The Congo Free State • Actually run by Leopold’s private company • Slave trade was to be suppressed in favor of free labor • Leopold cared more about profits than the people • Focused on rubber, which was in huge demand in Europe and the U.S. • Created inhuman working conditions by using forced labor and pushing for high quotas on materials • Led to the deaths of 2-15 million natives • Rubber supply was eventually wiped out

  29. Scramble for Africa • In 1908, the Belgian government took control of the Congo • Done mainly in response to the atrocities committed • Made the Congo a Belgian colony • Between 1885 and 1900 most of Africa was claimed by a European nation • Germany focused on central Africa • Took Cameroon and Tanzania • Britain took positions in the north and south and then moved inland • France moved from west Africa towards the east

  30. Africa in 1914

  31. Scramble for Africa • The scramble for territory was going to lead to conflicts with the natives • First Italo-Ethopian War (1895-1896) • Only time a native population was able to defeat European colonizing forces • Battle of Adowa (March 1, 1896) • 80,000 Ethiopians defeated the 20,000 Italian forces that were attempting to move inland • Ethiopians were being assisted by Russia • Kept European powers from trying to establish colonies there for over 40 years

  32. Scramble for Africa • Britain • In Egypt, Britain attempted to conquer the Upper Nile • Also attempted to conquer southern and eastern Africa • Cecil Rhodes (1853–1902) • Made a fortune from South African diamond mines (DeBeers) • Prime minister of Cape Colony (1890) • Personal goal was to build an African empire founded on diamonds • Carved out territories in Zambia, Zimbabwe, Malawi, and Botswana • The “Cape-to-Cairo” railway • Designed to transect Africa • Purpose of colonization was to make Britain self-sufficient

  33. Scramble for Africa • The French in Algeria • Algeria as a settler state • Utopian socialist communities • Exiled revolutionaries of 1848 • Winegrowers • Not all settlers were French • Under the Third Republic (1870), Algeria was made a department of France • Gave French settlers full rights of republican citizenship • Consolidated privileges • Disenfranchised indigenous populations • Differentiated “good” Berbers and “bad” Arabs

  34. Scramble for Africa • After 1870: the “civilizing mission” • Reinforcing the purpose of the French republic and French prestige • Jules Ferry (1832–1893), argued for expansion into Indochina • French acquired Tunisia in 1881 • Federation of French West Africa (1893) • Rationalizing the economic exploitation of the area • “Enhancing the value” of the region • Public programs served French interests only

  35. Scramble for Africa • Germany • Bismarck was a reluctant colonizer • Did not enter the “race” until the 1880s • Established colonies in German East Africa, the Cameroons, and Togo • With the scramble, it was clear that the European powers were going to come into conflict with one another • French and Germans had colonies along an east-west route • Britain focused on a north-south route

  36. Scramble for Africa • Fashoda Crisis (1898) • Britain and France faced one another for dominance of Africa • General Kitchner was conquering the Nile for Britain • Came upon French troops under Captain J.B. Marchand at Fashoda • France eventually backed down for fear of Germany’s growing power both in Europe and in Africa • Afrikaners (Boers) • Dutch and Swiss settlers who had arrived in the early nineteenth century • Troubled relationship with the British in South Africa • Set up two free states: Transvaal and the Orange Free State

  37. Scramble for Africa • When diamonds were discovered in Transvaal, the government refused to pass legislation allowing mining companies into the republic • Jameson Raid (1895) • Rhodes sent in Dr. Leeander Jameson with a party of armed irregulars into Transvaal to spark a British uprising • It failed • German Kaiser William II sent the infamous “Kruger telegram” to Transvaal president Paul Kruger • Congratulated him on driving off the British without the use of German aid

  38. Scramble for Africa • Second Boer War (1899-1902) • British army was completely unprepared for war • British government refused to compromise • The British eventually seized Pretoria • A guerilla war dragged on for three years • British used concentration camps where Afrikaner citizens were rounded up • 120,000 women and children were sent to the camps • Around 20,000 died • In 1910, the Union of South Africa was created • British and Boers shared power

  39. Boers in a British concentration camp

  40. European Colonies (c. 1900)

  41. Imperialism in Asia • Both British India and the Dutch East India colonies were profitable • They continuously exported more goods than they imported • Developed high level bureaucracies • These were good for providing government jobs to the middle- and upper-classes • The ideal form of colony for the Europeans

  42. Dutch East Indies • By 1815, the Dutch only controlled Java • However, incursions by the other European countries into the region forced the Dutch to seek greater claims in the East Indies • They laid claim to the entire archipelago • “Culture System” (aka Cultivation System) • 20% of village land was dedicated to crops to be exported • Form of taxation system • Led to a 14% increase in exports • Helped to bring the Netherlands out of the brink of bankruptcy

  43. India and the British Empire • The “Jewel of the British Crown” • The British East India Company • Had its own military divided into European and Indian divisions • Held the right to collect taxes on land from Indian peasants • Held legal monopolies over trade in all goods (the most lucrative was opium) • Constituted a military and repressive government • Offered economic privileges to those who allied themselves with the British against others

  44. India and the British Empire • British policy divided • One group wanted to westernize India • Another thought it safer and more practical to defer to local culture • There were many social, economic, and political grievances • Did not like the repressive British policies • Resented that those who were pro-British received the better benefits • British were against many of the Indian traditions • Included an end to widow burning and suppression of the Thuggee cult (criminal assassin “caste”)

  45. India and the British Empire • The Sepoy Rebellion (1857–1858) • Sepoyswere the native Indian troops that made up around 5/6th of the British Indian army • Already unhappy with terms of their service being changed • Company had terminated their pensions and forced them to serve in unfamiliar regions • Rumors spread that the British were greasing gun cartridges with pig and cow fat • The new cartridges needed to be bitten open • Agitated the Muslim and Hindu soldiers • Uprising began near Delhi • Indian peasants attacked law courts and burned tax rolls • Hindu and Muslim leaders denounced Christian missionaries

  46. India and the British Empire • The British response • Systematic campaign of repression • Rebel-supported towns and villages were destroyed • Reorganizing the Indian empire • New strategies of British rule • East India Company was abolished • British raj governed directly • Military reorganization • Queen Victoria as empress of India • Reform of the civil service • Missionary activity subdued

  47. India and the British Empire • India and Britain • India as Britain’s largest export market • India provided Britain with highly trained engineers and bureaucrats • 1.2 million Indian troops fought with the British in World War I • British indirect rule sought to create an Indian elite to serve British interests • Large social group of British-educated Indian civil servants and businessmen • Provided the leadership for an Indian nationalist movement

  48. Rani Lakshmibai of Jhansi • One of the key leaders of the Sepoy rebellion

  49. The “Great Game” • Russian colonization was through a policy of annexation • Southern colonization • Georgia (1801) • Bessarabia, Turkestan, and Armenia • Brought Russia and Britain close to war, especially over Afghanistan • The “Great Game” • Represented the jockeying taking place between Britain and Russia over the central Asia • The “Game” was played out dramatically in Persia

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