A History of Evolution

A History of Evolution Kanelia Cannon Walden University

Agricultural Age (8000b.c.- 1750) This age was characterized by extended families, the family business of agriculture, traveling by foot or horse, communicating face to face, oral education, limited books, multi-age groups in school, and home-schooling. Industrial Age

Industrial Age (1751-1955) This age was characterized by the nuclear family. Business followed top-down bureaucracies and work was done in factories. People traveled by automobile and plane and communicated face to face. Educational instruction relied on books, video, and filmstrips and students were grouped by age and grades. Society & Culture Technology Work Education Religion

Technology 1900s • 1903: The Wright brothers invent the first gas motored and manned airplane. • 1905: Albert Einstein published the Theory of Relativity and made famous the equation, E = mc2. • 1906: Lewis Nixon invents the first sonar like device; Lee Deforest invents electronic amplifying tube (triode). • 1908: Model T first sold.

Technology 1910s • 1910: Thomas Edison demonstrated the first talking motion picture. • 1911: Charles Franklin Kettering invents the first automobile electrical ignition system. • 1914: Garrett A. Morgan invents the Morgan gas mask. • 1916: Radio tuners invented, that received different stations. • 1918: The super heterodyne radio circuit invented by Edwin Howard Armstrong. Today, every radio or television set uses this invention.

Technology 1920s • 1921: Artificial life begins -- the first robot built. • 1923: The television or iconoscope (cathode-ray tube) invented by Vladimir Kosma Zworykin.; John Harwood invented the self-winding watch.; Clarence Birdseye invents frozen food. • 1925: The mechanical television a precursor to the modern television, invented by John Logie Baird. • 1926: Robert H. Goddard invents liquid-fueled rockets. • 1927: Philo Taylor Farnsworth invents a complete electronic TV system; Technicolor invented. • 1928: Scottish biologist Alexander Fleming discovers penicillin.

Technology 1930s • 1930: The frozen food process patented by Clarence Birdseye.; The "differential analyzer", or analog computer invented by Vannevar Bush at MIT in Boston.; Frank Whittle and Dr Hans von Ohain both invent a jet engine. • 1931: Germans Max Knott and Ernst Ruska co-invent the electron microscope. • 1933: Frequency modulation (FM radio) invented by Edwin Howard Armstrong; Stereo records invented. • 1934: Joseph Begun invents the first tape recorder for broadcasting - first magnetic recording. • 1936: Bell Labs invents the voice recognition machine.; The first jet engine is built. • 1938: The first working turboprop engine. • 1939:The electron microscope invented.

Technology 1940s • 1940: Peter Goldmark invents modern color television system. • 1941: Konrad Zuse's Z3, the first computer controlled by software.; Enrico Fermi invents the neutronic reactor. • 1942: John Atanasoff and Clifford Berry built the first electronic digital computer. • September 1942: The Manhattan Project is formed to secretly build the atomic bomb before the Germans. • July 1945: The United States explodes the first atomic device at a site near Alamagordo, New Mexico - the invention of the atomic bomb. • 1946: The microwave oven invented by Percy Spencer. • 1947: Mobile phones first invented. Although cell phones were not sold commercially until 1983.; Bardeen, Brattain, and Shockley invent the transistor.

Technology 1950-1955 • 1950: The first credit card (Diners) invented by Ralph Schneider. • 1951: Charles Ginsburg invented the first video tape recorder (VTR). • December 1951: The first usable electricity from nuclear fission is produced at the National Reactor Station, later called the Idaho National Engineering Laboratory. • 1952: Edward Teller and team build the hydrogen bomb. • 1953: The first musical synthesizer invented by RCA.; David Warren invented the black box - flight recorder.: Transistor radio invented by Texas Instruments. • 1954: Oral contraceptives invented - the pill.: The solar cell invented by Chaplin, Fuller and Pearson.; 1955: Optic fiber invented. Industrial Age Work

Work 1900s • New Industry The United States was considered a major industrial nation. Global expansion meant increased wealth as raw materials became cheaper to acquire, driving prices down and consumption up. The decade saw business prospering in many sectors, including oil, steel, textiles, railroads, and food products. The unprecedented technological progress in the decade was marked by the birth of the automobile and aviation industries. • The Advent of Professional Managers With global expansion and increased markets, big business grew, creating a new profession of management, separate from the owners of the business. Thus, the age of the robber baron came to an end as the age of the manager and stockholder took over.

Work 1900s • The Rise of Big Business The first decade of the century saw businesses continue to expand through merging with similar companies (horizontal integration) and taking on additional functions in the production and sale of their products, such as a manufacturer of raw materials becoming involved in marketing the product to consumers (vertical integration). The result was an elimination of competition and a stratification of business enterprises into those that were capital-intensive, such as manufacturers, and those that were not, such as service industries. • Incorporation With new inventions and discoveries as well as emerging national markets for an array of goods and services, the early 1900s saw the founding of major corporations that have become fixtures of American life

Work 1910s • Battle for Control The emphasis on efficiency and production in the 1910s transformed the relationship between labor and management. The factory system changed the nature of work itself by increasing reliance on machines and the assembly line, thus decreasing the ability of factory workers to set their own pace of work. • Taylorism Corporate executives in the 1910s adopted the scientific management principles of Philadelphia engineer Frederick W. Taylor. Taylor offered a method for extracting the maximum efficiency from each worker in a scientific, clinical, and objective manner.

Work 1920s Politicians and business leaders of the 1920s resurrected the conservative economic philosophy that dominated the late nineteenth century. Government took a backseat while business drove the nation.; Laissez-faireBoth the Harding and Coolidge administrations adopted laissez-faire, or "hands off the economy," stances. Coolidge often said that the business of America was business, and he put that principle into practice. The antitrust laws were largely ignored; federal encouragement to business was more vigorous than ever before.

Work 1930s • Stagnation Stagnation, an influential school of economic thought, argued that capitalism had reached its "mature" phase and was finished growing. They argued that low prices, high unemployment, and oversupply—a stagnant economy—were permanent structural features of the mature economy. The gap between the establishment of these newer industries and the collapse of older industries led to a temporarily stagnant economy that made life miserable for millions. • Emerging Consumerism Many of the unusual economic features of the 1930s evidenced the transition from a manufacturing to a consumer economy. Lower food prices and an increasing number of women working outside the home shifted many American eating habits to canned and processed foods, which were easier and quicker to serve. The government revamped the Pure Food and Drug Act of 1906 to meet increased consumer concerns regarding the purity of processed food; sanitary concerns led to a boom in glass products for packaging. Similarly, the chemical and oil industries turned from manufacturing concerns to consumer products. To cut costs and meet the needs of new markets, chemical manufacturers turned to developing products for consumer use, such as rayon and nylon, or for consumer industries such as motion pictures and electronics.

Work 1930s • The Crash The stock-market crash of 1929 complicated the temporary stagnation of the economy. Capital liquidity and investor confidence might have spurred the growth of new industries. After the crash, however, capital and confidence were in short supply; Both were undermined by poor economic practices and fiscal mismanagement in the 1920s. • Industrial Warfare Nothing reflects the structural and philosophical impasse of the 1930s better than the debate over the role of labor in the economy. The United States has historically had some of the most severe industrial warfare in the West. Economic orthodoxy denied the right of labor to organize, collectively bargain, or strike. Industrialists consistently articulated the idea that labor was secondary to capital in the productive process; labor was cheap and replaceable; wages were necessarily low, in order to discipline the workforce. The American System tempered this philosophy somewhat, as management assumed a new paternalism toward labor. But the productive gains of labor during the 1920s were not reflected in rising wages, and with the stock-market crash the facade of paternalism dissolved. • A New Philosophy Ultimately, the vanguard of a new economic philosophy came from the ranks of those businesses that would lead the economy toward consumer production. By 1937 a new coalition of New Deal politicians, CIO organizers, and consumer industrialists were developing a new economic philosophy, one based on government regulation of finance and securities, countercyclical deficit spending, progressive taxation, free international trade, labor organization, and high wages. It would become the basis of prosperity after World War II, insuring a quality of life from 1945 to 1972 unparalleled in American history.

Work 1940s • Isolationism Ironically, the Roosevelt administration's cautious engagement in the European conflict stemmed in part from political forces created by American business. During the 1930s congressional investigations revealed business efforts to pressure the United States to enter World War I. The reputation of American business, already suffering as a result of the Wall Street crash, reached a new low among the public. By 1940 many Americans believed that bankers, munitions makers, and other "merchants of death" had in 1917 led the United States into World War I to protect loans to European governments and market shares. This belief, coalescing into a political movement known as isolationism, made direct American engagement in Europe politically impossible, even after France fell to the Nazis and Britain was devastated by German bombs.

Work 1940s • Cost-Plus Roosevelt believed that political compromise with big business was vital to the war effort and set aside proposals for the nationalization of industry as too divisive. Instead, the government granted lucrative contracts on profitable terms to entice American business to war. Many of the government war orders were done on a cost-plus basis, meaning that the government guaranteed that the manufacturer would receive the cost of producing an item plus a prearranged profit. • Consumer Revolution The Truman administration sought to reconvert the American industry to its nonmilitary bases as quickly and as painlessly as the Roosevelt administration had converted it to war production. One way of accomplishing this goal was to use some of the government agencies overseeing war production to supervise the peacetime conversion of American industry. The Office of War Mobilization, retitled in 1944 the Office of War Mobilization and Reconversion, continued to coordinate manpower, production, and resources after the war.

Work 1950-1955 • Role of Government Government did not merely set the rules by which the economy would operate; it became a major participant in the economy as a consumer of goods and services. A healthy corporate sector supplied the government's growing appetite for funds, which it acquired in part by taxes. • Labor Unions Government had to keep labor happy but was afraid to let the unions become corrupt or infested with Communists. During the decade Congress, with the approval of the executive and judicial branches, passed laws to allow management to get rid of Communists in the labor movement. Unions could also not be allowed to become too powerful, lest they shut down critical U.S. industries. Industrial Age Education

Education 1900s • First school museum opened in St. Louis. Visual instruction's importance was realized by educators. • Thorndike: The Laws of Learning

Kilpatrick Project Method Dewey’s Problem Solving Method Montesorri Method Individualized Instruction 1912: Burke’s System of Individualized Instruction 1919: Winnetka Plan First School Use of Educational Films Educational Stations began broadcasting 1913 John B. Watson announced behaviorism as a formal system of psychology Education 1910s

Education 1920s • Individualized Instruction • 1920: Dalton Plan • 1925-1935 The Morrision Plan • Lewin’s Field of Theory and Science of Instruction • Jean Piaget’s Model of Cognitive Development • 1925-1935: Growth in educational radio • 1929: Radio Section established in the U.S. Office of Education • Visual Instruction Movement • Definitive methodology for the film in the classroom had been developed • Teacher education in visual instruction emerged • Contract learning and mastery learning emerged, and the roots of job analysis and task analysis developed.

Education 1930s • B.F. Skinner’s System of Operant Conditioning • Growth in educational radio continued • The U.S. Office of Education began the Instructional Radio Research Project • The Institute for Education by Radio-Television was organized at Ohio State University • Emergence of Instructional Television • Motion Picture Project for the American Council on Education (ACE) • The Progressive Movement in education

Education 1940s • Industrial Training • World War II brought a need to train millions of industrial workers • The role of an instructional technologist emerged • Edgar Dale developed the Cone of Experience

Education 1950-1955 • Communication Models • Harold D. Losswell developed the Losswell communication model • Newcomb’s ABX model • Usgoud-Schram model • Postwar distribution of educational films • Cognitive Science/Modern Cognitive Psychology Emerged • Federal Aid for research in educational technology was largely increased • The Cooperative Research Program was established Industrial Age Society & Culture

Changes in American Life However, enormous changes were under way during the 1900s. The population grew substantially (by sixteen million from seventy-five million between 1900 and 1910), in large part because of the hundreds of thousands of immigrants who arrived every year on American shores. The process of urbanization, already well established in the nineteenth century, continued unabated, bringing millions of Americans into contact with complete strangers and reshaping the way they worked and lived. Women entered the workforce in increasing numbers as manufacturing and retailing expanded. Progress for Women Since an 1848 conference in Seneca Falls, New York, many American women had been writing, speaking, and protesting in favor of equal political and social rights for women. This battle continued on many fronts in the 1900s, a time that also saw divisions appear within the ranks. Women made important gains within professions such as law and medicine, though they remained a small minority. Society & Culture 1900s

Society & Culture 1900s • The New Immigrants The United States had for decades absorbed substantial numbers of immigrants, but the quantity and diversity of the immigrant population in the 1900s created additional social and political tensions. Tensions over ethnicity, politics, jobs, and religion contributed to a steady growth in hostility toward immigrants during the 1900s. • 1901: U.S. President McKinley Assassinated • 1902: Boer War Ends; U.S. Passes the Chinese Exclusion Act • 1904: Russo-Japanese War Begins1905: "Bloody Sunday" - Russian Revolution of 1905; Einstein Proposes His Theory of Relativity; Freud Publishes His Theory of Sexuality • 1906: The Dreadnought Launched; Finland First European Country to Give Women the Right to Vote; Upton Sinclair Writes The Jungle • 1907: Ten Rules of War Established at the Second Hague Peace Conference • 1908: Ford Introduces the Model-T; Turks Revolt in the Ottoman Empire • 1909: NAACP Is Founded

Society & Culture 1910s • Who Is an American? Wholesale changes in the ethnic makeup of the nation's population encouraged many people, perplexed by the shifting social currents around them, to redefine the meaning of being American; • RaceViolent racism against African Americans in these years escalated, resulting in hundreds of lynchings across the rural South. Meanwhile, a historic exodus of black Americans from the states of the former Confederacy began during the war years, when serious industrial labor shortages in the North opened the prospect of higher wages and improved living standards.; • Shifting Boundaries of Public and Private LifeDuring the nineteenth-century, a clear distinction between the private home life of the family and the outside world of work and commerce had begun to seem normal to many Americans, especially in the nation's rapidly growing cities and towns. In the ideal envisioned by the burgeoning middle class, women presided over nurturing and caring activities at home, while men represented the family by going to jobs outside the home and participating in political life. This dividing line blurred significantly during the 1910s, particularly as more and more women entered varied fields of public life.; • VolunteerismAmericans in the 1910s embraced a variety of new voluntary organizations. All kinds of groups, from immigrant-aid societies to bridge clubs, tended to reshape the lifestyles of many Americans, further breaking the traditional barriers between the public and private spheres of individuals' lives. ; • Struggling toward ModernityAmerican lifestyles in the 1910s often reflected the continuing struggle among the social, industrial, and political forces that were pushing the nation into the modern era and the efforts by many Americans, in the midst of profound upheaval, to preserve the features of their society that they considered desirable.

Society & Culture 1910s • 1911: The Chinese Revolution; Standard Oil Company Broken Up • 1913: Henry Ford Creates Assembly Line; Personal Income Tax Introduced in U.S. • 1914: Archduke Ferdinand Assassinated; Battle of the Marne; World War I Begins; Panama Canal Officially Opened • 1915: Armenian Genocide; D.W. Griffith's The Birth of a Nation Released; Lusitania Sunk by German U-Boat; Second Battle of Ypres • 1917: Russian Revolution; U.S. Enters World War I • 1918: 1918 Spanish Flu Pandemic; Daylight Saving Time Introduced; Russian Czar Nicholas II and His Family are Killed • 1919: Treaty of Versailles Ends World War I

Society & Culture 1920s • The Wake of World War I • The 1920s opened in the aftermath of World War I. The war's brutality and devastation in Europe culminated in euphoria at home over the armistice, followed by political controversy over the Treaty of Versailles. • Conversion to Peacetime Economy • In the absence of government planning, conversion to a peacetime economy was abrupt. • Strikes of 1919 • In the summer and fall of 1919, four million laborers—from East Coast textile workers to nearly all the workforce in Seattle to Chicago's steelworkers and meatpackers—went on strike. These strikes resulted, in large part, from wartime ideology and fears of postwar retrenchment • The Red Scare • The 1920s thus opened in a mood of fear and intolerance that would linger through the decade. The Red Scare led to bizarre, hysterical attacks against aliens and alleged Communists.

Society & Culture 1920s • Revolution in Manners and Morals • A series of profound changes in American life were in place and sharply felt by the 1920s. As novelist Willa Cather commented, "The world broke into two in 1922 or thereabouts." First, between 1880 and World War I, the overall birth rate fell, and the divorce rate increased. In addition, rates of sexual activity both before and outside marriage increased. Finally, greater numbers of working-class women worked outside the home in factories, stores, and offices, and growing numbers of middle-class women attended college and entered professional careers. • Transformations • Broad patterns of economic and demographic change shaped this transformation in personal behavior. The economy shifted from the industrial model of the nineteenth century to a complex, bureaucratic system shaped by increasingly important corporations. • "Coolidge Prosperity" • In these years the United States amassed two-fifths of the world's wealth. New technology, power resources, and scientific management techniques combined to create the efficient, mechanized production that enabled Henry Ford's company to claim in October 1925 that Ford Industries produced "a complete Model T every ten seconds." • A "People's Car" • Henry Ford envisioned the production of a "people's car." Determined that every one of his workers would be able to buy a Ford automobile, he paid them five dollars a day and lowered the cost of cars until they matched buying power.

Society & Culture 1920s • Communications • During the 1920s radios, telephones, and motion pictures created mass culture and linked Americans more closely than ever before. • Stock-Market Crash • The American economy failed to solve its problems of consumption and distribution. Agriculture, construction, and the coal, textile, and railroad industries were in decline, and inventories were building up in cars and durable goods. Businesses encouraged consumers to buy on the installment plan, and by 1929 they had $6 billion tied up in installment debt. • Race and Ethnicity • The 1920s were marked by growing racial and ethnic conflict. While professing a pluralist vision that promised to incorporate Americans from different races and ethnic groups into mainstream society, many native-born Americans responded with nativist fear to the increasing cultural diversity. • Antialien Sentiment • World War I prompted an ideology known as "100-percent Americanism and Americanization," in part to ensure the loyalty of German-Americans and all foreigners during the war. This anti-alien ideology demanded that all immigrants conform to Anglo-American type and abandon their ethnic traditions.

Society & Culture 1920s • The Family • Revolutionary changes in family behavior led to the rise of a new ideal of family life called the "companionate family." Instead of bolstering the late-Victorian notion of the family as a hierarchical and patriarchal refuge from the hostile world beyond, the new companionate family viewed husbands and wives as "friends and lovers" and parents and children as "pals." • The New Woman • The strong, independent, and accomplished "new woman," who entered the American scene at the turn of the twentieth century, gained further character with the passage of the suffrage amendment in 1920. • Leisure Activities, Cultural Conflict • In the 1920s money spent on leisure activities such as movies, dances, and sports rose by 300 percent. Prohibition transformed saloons into speakeasies, which got their name from the use of passwords to gain entrance. Many nightclubs had ties to organized crime, and Chicago's Al Capone amassed a fortune by supplying drinkers. New leisure-time pursuits became an arena of cultural conflict. • 1920: Bubonic Plague in India; First Commercial Radio Broadcast Aired; Harlem Renaissance Begins; League of Nations Established; Prohibition Begins in the U.S.; Women Granted the Right to Vote in U.S. • 1922:Insulin Discovered; Mussolini Marches on Rome • 1923: Hitler Jailed After Failed Coup; Talking Movies Invented; Teapot Dome Scandal • 1925: Hitler Publishes Mein Kampf; The Scopes (Monkey) Trial • 1928: Kellogg-Briand Treaty Outlaws War; Penicillin Discovered • 1929:Car Radio Invented; Stock Market Crashes; St. Valentine's Day Massacre

Society & Culture 1930s • A New President • The election of Franklin D. Roosevelt to the presidency in 1932 reflected the new thinking of many Americans. Roosevelt offered a planned economy, an activist government, and federal assistance to the disadvantaged. • A New Deal • Roosevelt's New Deal intervened at an unprecedented level in the lives of average Americans. Direct emergency relief, although meager, kept many from starving; public works projects provided temporary jobs for millions; federal insurance protected the life savings of American workers; housing and iarm loans protected millions from foreclosure; Social Security provided retirement and unemployment protection; Roosevelt's support for organized labor insured millions of workers of high wages and safer working conditions. Such policies laid the foundation of the welfare state and were overwhelmingly supported by the public. • The Family • The Great Depression hit families who had felt insulated from economic crises. Families who based their security on savings accounts and home ownership were suddenly penniless and unable to pay off their mortgages. The Depression created two kinds of poor Americans, The traditional poor, whose poverty began before the Depression, included tenant farmers, the elderly, single-parent families, and the disabled. The "new" poor included thousands of formerly middle-and working-class families suddenly impoverished by the loss of jobs, homes, and savings. • Woman as Homemaker • In 1933 Eleanor Roosevelt called on American women to pull the country through the crisis of the Great Depression. The collective contributions of women were critical during the 1930s. With Americans turning inward and relying on their families for survival, woman's role at the center of the family gained in significance. Overall, the Depression served to reinforce traditional gender roles.

Society & Culture 1930s • 1931:U.S. Officially Gets National Anthem • 1933: Adolf Hitler Becomes Chancellor of Germany; Assassination Attempt on FDR; FDR Launches New Deal; First Nazi Concentration Camp Established; Prohibition Ends in the U.S. • 1934: The Dust Bowl; Mao Zedong Begins the Long March • 1935: Alcoholics Anonymous Founded; Germany Issues the Anti-Jewish Nuremberg Laws; Social Security Enacted in U.S. • 1937: The Hindenberg Disaster; Japan Invades China • 1938: Broadcast of "The War of the Worlds" Causes Panic; Hitler Annexes Austria • 1939: First Commercial Flight Over the Atlantic; German-Soviet Non-Aggression Pact Signed; World War II Begins

Society & Culture 1940s • America at War World War II presented a new series of demands and dislocations that further reconfigured personal life. Most immediately, the armed forces conscripted ten million men, including fathers, after 1943. The war effort demanded stepped-up production at home to equip the military and maintain civilian needs • Inflation While many Americans benefited from the immediate prosperity of the postwar years, complete economic recovery proved elusive. By the end of the decade inflation became the new economic woe. • Containment and the Cold War The late 1940s marked the beginning of the Cold War. Fear of communism manifested itself in the Red-baiting that began in 1946 and in a policy of containment directed at the Soviet Union. Postwar politics generated serious concerns about global security. Once the United States dropped atomic bombs on Hiroshima and Nagasaki, the world entered the nuclear age. The United States and the Soviet Union stared at one another with fear and hostility. The Cold War began to chill the nation, creating profound insecurity about the future.

Society & Culture 1940s • Ethnicity and Race in the 1940s The war years encouraged the assimilation of white ethnics from European backgrounds into American society. Americans' revulsion at the Nazi ideology of racial purity led them to reject assertions of Anglo-Saxon supremacy in the United States. The Alien Registration Act of 1940 encouraged aliens to become American citizens, and between 1943 and 1944 nearly one million people—mostly from Italian and Eastern European backgrounds—were naturalized. The distinctive ethnic identities of these new citizens were not valued, and nonwhites were not welcomed into the melting pot. • Internment of Japanese Americans After Japanese forces attacked Pearl Harbor on 7 December 1941, first and second-generation Japanese Americans living on the West Coast were judged to be threats to national security. In February 1942, 120,000 West Coast residents of Japanese origin were ordered to leave their homes, jobs, and property and were taken to inland internment camps, where they were held for the duration of the war. Few of those interned represented any actual security threat. Two-thirds of them were American citizens by birth.

Society & Culture 1940s • Discrimination against African Americans While they continued to suffer from segregation and discrimination, African Americans managed to make modest gains during the military crisis. These improvements in the status of African Americans set the stage for the civil rights movement of the 1950s and 1960s. • Women in the Workplace The economic hard times of the Depression and the demands of wartime production pushed women into the workforce. The Depression forced many wives and mothers to find ways to supplement their reduced family incomes, but government pronouncements and policies reinforced the ideology of the traditional family. The inability to provide for his family eroded an unemployed man's sense of masculinity, and married women who worked outside the home were often perceived as taking jobs away from men. As a result women faced job discrimination.

Society & Culture 1940s • The Baby Boom Marriage rates continued to soar after the war, and there was a sharp rise in the birthrate that has become known as the Baby Boom. The Baby Boom generation reshaped the American family and American culture for decades to come. • The Birth of Suburbia This idealized good life was set in one of the new suburban communities that suddenly sprawled across the American landscape after World War II. Postwar prosperity and government subsidies made home ownership accessible to large numbers of middle-class Americans for the first time. • 1940:Battle of Britain; Leon Trotsky Assassinated; Nylons on the Market • 1941: Japanese Attack Pearl Harbor; Manhattan Project Begins • 1942: The Bataan Death March; Battle of Midway; Battle of Stalingrad; Japanese-Americans Held in Camps • 1944: D-Day; First German V1 and V2 Rockets Fired • 1945: FDR Dies; United Nations Founded; U.S. Drops Atomic Bombs on Hiroshima and Nagasaki • 1946: Nuremberg Trials; Winston Churchill Gives His "Iron Curtain" Speech • 1948: "Big Bang" Theory Formulated; "Dewey Defeats Truman" in the Newspaper; Gandhi Assassinated; Policy of Apartheid Begun • 1949: China Becomes Communist; NATO Established; Soviet Union Has Atomic Bomb

Society & Culture 1950-1955 • Immigration Adding to the burgeoning population was a steady flow of immigrants, including war refugees from World War II and war brides from Korea. Another source of immigration to the United States was its neighbor to the south, Mexico. • Transportation If America of the 1950s was a growing society, it was also a society on the move. Life was getting faster. There were more-powerful cars to drive and more and better roads on which to drive them. • Sex Attitudes about the relationship between men and women outside of marriage underwent some revisions during the decade.

Society & Culture 1950-1955 • 1950: First Modern Credit Card Introduced; First Organ Transplant; Korean War Begins; U.S. President Truman Orders Construction of Hydrogen Bomb • 1951: South Africans Forced to Carry ID Cards Identifying Race; Truman Signs Peace Treaty With Japan, Officially Ending WWII; Winston Churchill Again Prime Minister of Great Britain • 1952: The Great Smog of 1952; Polio Vaccine Created; Princess Elizabeth Becomes Queen at Age 25 • 1953: DNA Discovered; First Playboy Magazine; Joseph Stalin Dies • 1954: First Atomic Submarine Launched; Report Says Cigarettes Cause Cancer; Segregation Ruled Illegal in U.S. • 1955: Emmett Till Murdered; McDonald's Corporation Founded; Rosa Parks Refuses to Give Up Her Seat on a Bus; Warsaw Pact Signed Industrial Age Religion

Religion 1900s • Imperialism and World Missions Some religious leaders entered the twentieth century filled with confidence and optimism, inspired to a new faith in Manifest Destiny by America's recent victory in the Spanish-American War. Many believed that the Protestant faith, to which the majority of Americans adhered, could join the principles of democratic government as an American export for the great benefit of humanity worldwide. Nothing illustrated this sentiment as much as the enthusiastic drive to send Protestant missionaries to the newly acquired and predominantly Catholic Philippines. • Diversity For some, religion had ventured so far into the secular realm as to be unrecognizable. While the traditional mainline denominations—Methodists, Baptists, Lutherans, Presbyterians, Episcopalians, Congregationalists, and Disciples of Christ—taken together maintained a substantial numerical dominance, other religious bodies would as much as quintuple their membership during the course of the century's first decade. Roman Catholicism, Eastern Orthodoxy, Judaism, and some Asian religions enjoyed a high rate of growth through the massive immigration of 1900 through 1910.

Religion 1900s • Pentecostalism One of the more extreme reactions to the perceived social decline came in the form of the Pentecostal movement that was born with the new century. Deeply concerned with the imminent millennial future, Pentecostalists focused equally on the restoration of the biblical past, in which gifts of prophecy, healing, and speaking in tongues were granted to the first Christian disciples. • Roman Catholicism The Roman Catholic Church in America entered the twentieth century with the problems of the nineteenth century still demanding its attention. Catholics still worked to shed the image of blind obedience to papal authority that they retained in the eyes of Protestant America. • Blacks Though mostly Protestant, blacks had their own religious development that often paralleled but was separate from that of the white American churches. The major denominations were still split along racial lines, and even many white churches still had separate northern and southern federations, showing that Civil War-era disunity persisted. Segregation did not imply weakness, however, and black churches continued to both multiply and divide at this time.

Religion 1910s • The World Stage This progressive spirit extended beyond the borders of the United States, manifesting itself abroad in the ambitious foreign missionary movements launched by American religious bodies around the turn of the century; • Modernism The question of what it meant to be a Christian civilization had clear theological implications, and it thus engendered serious debate within American Protestantism during the 1910s, as the seeds for the explosive Fundamentalist/Modernist controversy of the 1920s were sown.; • Roman Catholicism American Catholics had entered the twentieth century with two major problems demanding their attention. The first was the great ethnic diversity within the American church. But in the 1910s that issue took a back seat to the church's other major challenge of long standing, acceptance by American Protestants, who had a long history of nativist prejudice against ; Catholics. • Black Americans Protestantism was the religion of a vast majority of American blacks, but they were concentrated in separate institutions, independent from white denominational bodies. As a result, black Americans after the turn of the century developed their own Social Gospel movement.

Religion 1920s • Catholics and Prohibition The many Roman Catholic communities in the large industrial cities and states of the country were offended by Prohibition, which not only was imposed upon them, but interfered with the cultural use of alcohol that they brought with them from their native lands. Instead of actually solving tensions between Catholics and Protestants, Prohibition and its enforcement intensified the social and political struggles of the decade. • Protestants and Immigration Protestants were also partly responsible for the new immigration laws that went into effect during the decade, although Catholic union members had also long opposed unrestricted immigration. Both the immigration acts of 1921 and 1924 placed a cap on the number of immigrants who could be admitted to the United States each year. • Religion and Evolution Newspapers and magazines paid primary attention to this struggle in the public debate over teaching evolution in public schools. The effort to ban the teaching of evolution reached its climax in Tennessee, which became to first state to adopt this Fundamentalist program. The Tennessee law led to the great Scopes "Monkey" Trial in the small town of Dayton, whose city fathers hoped the publicity from a challenge to the law would put Dayton on the map and lead to economic growth.

Religion 1920s • Entering Mainstream America • Another event with symbolic significance came with the raising of George Mundeline to the College of Cardinals. He was the first non-Irish American cardinal in the history of the American church. While the Irish would continue to dominate the American Catholic Church for the coming decades, its hierarchy was beginning to reflect the various national origins of the church's population in the United States. • Anti-Semitism • The rapid ascent of Jewish immigrants and their high visibility in certain industries, particularly movies and radio, helped trigger new waves of anti-Semitism that partially reflected growing anti-Semitism in Europe. The Ku Klux Klan listed Jews among the many groups they considered dangerous to "traditional" values. • 1920s: Christian evangelists dominate early commercial radio broadcasting • 1924: American Jewish population reaches 2 million; First African-American mainstream Islamic community founded New York; Immigration act implements quotas; stems growth of religious diversity; • 1925: Scopes trial; evangelical fundamentalist Christians retreat from public sphere • 1926: Conservative Christians disengage from politics following the scopes trial

Religion 1930s • 1930s: The Great Depression transforms religious landscape- fundamentalist, Pentecostals, and Holiness traditions experience an awakening’ • 1930: Wallace D. Fard founds the Nation of Islam • 1939: Religious radio programming regulated

Religion 1940s • Protestant Membership The largest faith in the United States, Protestantism was represented by more than 250 denominations. The largest Protestant body was the Methodist Church, with 8 million members and 40,000 churches. • Catholics and Jews Catholicism and Judaism were the predominant religions of immigrant groups who came to the United States by the millions at the turn of the century. With 25 million communicants, Catholicism was the largest religious body in the United States. • Liberalism Long-term trends in theology and religious practice coalesced and reshaped the landscape of American faith. In general, religion was unmistakably more liberal. Interdenominational rivalry gave way to a spirit of ecumenical cooperation; interfaith animosity was replaced by religious tolerance.

Religion 1940s • The War Church American religious leaders labored mightily to come to grips with the war. Like any other institution, for the most part the churches were simply absorbed into the larger military effort. Nearly eight thousand clergy enrolled in the ranks of the service as chaplains, and churches provided Bibles and devotional literature to the troops. As America's moral conscience, however, the churches had unique responsibilities during the war. American churches redoubled their efforts on the home front, providing aid and comfort to separated families and monitoring the war's effect on the nation's morality. • 1940: Supreme Court ruling protects Jehovah's Witnesses' right to solicitation ( In Cantwell v. Connecticut, the Supreme Court finds that local authorities cannot restrict solicitation based on religious beliefs and that the Cantwells' activities are protected under the First and 14th Amendments.) • 1944: Buddhist organization, practices transformed after Pearl Harbor (Originally founded as the Buddhist Mission of North America, Japanese Buddhists change the name of their organization in 1944, hoping to allay American suspicions in the aftermath of Pearl Harbor.) • 1945: Postwar America undergoes religious resurgence; nonbelievers viewed as anti-American (In the postwar era, Americans flock to church in record numbers, swelling the growth of traditional denominations -- Methodists, Baptists, Disciples of Christ, Lutherans and Presbyterians.) • 1947: Supreme Court ruling resurrects Jefferson's "wall of separation" between church and state • 1949:Taking the stage in a series of revivals in Los Angeles, Billy Grahambecomes one of the leaders of a new evangelicalism that departs from the strictures of fundamentalism and embraces new media, technology and institution building, bringing evangelicalism to national prominence.

Religion 1950-1955 • Mergers The decade began with the creation of the National Council of Churches of Christ in America, which brought together thirty-one million members of the main line Protestant and Orthodox churches to work on a broad range of issues. Mergers continued to bring together groups long divided by issues that had lost their relevance. • A New Pluralism Perhaps the most significant religious development of the 1950s was the collapse of the old Protestant dominance of the culture. People in the 1950s began to talk of the Judeo-Christian heritage as opposed to Christian America; the Roman Catholic church lost its aura of an immigrant church and received the long-coveted acknowledgement as an American institution. Its wealth and power were factors that could no longer be scorned or ignored.

Religion 1950-1955 • 1950s: As new evangelicals begin to shape a response to the threat of nonbelief -- namely "godless communism" -- in the post-World War II world, fissures between evangelicals and fundamentalists begin to show. • 1952: Pentecostal minister Rex Humbard becomes the first evangelist to host a weekly television show, Cathedral of Tomorrow. • 1953: Barnstorming the country during the 1950s, Billy Grahampreaches a straightforward message of sin and salvation. In Chattanooga, Tenn., Graham breaks the color barrier when he disregards the ropes that separated white and blacks attending the meeting. • 1955: Churches and religious organizations play a central role in the civil rights movement, which mobilizes after the arrest of Rosa Parks and the Montgomery Bus Boycott. ; U.S. redefined as Judeo-Christian nation Information Age Industrial Age

A History of Evolution