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Children’s Thinking. Lecture 2 First Things First. Children’s Thinking: The Essentials. What is the nature of children's thinking? What mental capacities or processes underlie children's thinking? How and why does children's thinking change? How does the infant's mind become the adult's?.
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Children’s Thinking Lecture 2 First Things First
Children’s Thinking: The Essentials • What is the nature of children's thinking? • What mental capacities or processes underlie children's thinking? • How and why does children's thinking change? How does the infant's mind become the adult's?
How can we tell what children are thinking? • Thinking must be inferred from observed behavior. • So how do we observe behavior? • Stories from first lecture are examples of informal observations – what is wrong (or incomplete) about these? • Historically, systematic observation was adopted from the practices of naturalists. • In fact, Charles Darwin is often credited with being the first to attempt to keep formal baby biographies.
A Fish Story [Louis] Agassiz would ask the student when he would like to begin. If the answer was now, the student was immediately presented with a dead fish -- usually a very long dead, pickled, evil-smelling specimen -- personally selected by "the master" from one of the wide-mouthed jars that lined his shelves. The fish was placed before the student in a tin pan. He was to look at the fish, the student was told, whereupon Agassiz would leave, not to return until later in the day, if at all. Samuel Scudder, one of the many from the school who would go on to do important work of their own (his in entomology), described the experience as one of life's turning points. In ten minutes I had seen all that could be seen in that fish.... Half an hour passed -- an hour -- another hour; the fish began to look loathsome. I turned it over and around; looked it in the face -- ghastly; from behind, beneath, above, sideways, at three-quarters view -- just as ghastly. I was in despair. I might not use a magnifying glass; instruments of all kinds were interdicted. My two hands, my two eyes, and the fish: it seemed a most limited field. I pushed my finger down its throat to feel how sharp the teeth were. I began to count the scales in different rows, until I was convinced that that was nonsense. At last a happy thought struck me -- I would draw the fish, and now with surprise I began to discover new features in the creature.
When Agassiz returned later and listened to Scudder recount what he had observed, his only comment was that the young man must look again. I was piqued; I was mortified. Still more of that wretched fish! But now I set myself to my task with a will, and discovered one new thing after another.... The afternoon passed quickly; and when, toward its close, the professor inquired: "Do you see it yet?" "No," I replied, "I am certain I do not, but I see how little I saw before." The day following, having thought of the fish through most of the night, Scudder had a brainstorm. The fish, he announced to Agassiz, had symmetrical sides with paired organs. "Of course, of course!" Agassiz said, obviously pleased. Scudder asked what he might do next, and Agassiz replied, "Oh, look at your fish!"
Some possible conclusions • Cephalocaudal (“head-to-tail”) development • Proximo-distal (central to peripheral) development • Early behavior poorly differentiated • Early behavior poorly integrated
What is the aim of observation? • G. Stanley Hall, 1st American Psychology PhD, founder of American Psychological Association, set the tone: • Goal of developmental observations should be to establish norms. • Though Hall’s theoretical emphases are obsolete, developmental psychology retains a normative emphasis: • Abnormal or disordered development must be understood in terms of normal development. • Arnold Gesell responsible for most widely known developmental norms • Used new technology of file to improve observations • Growth norms in 1920s • Behavioral norms in 1940s
Gesell Norms • Today, mostly used by pediatricians • Four categories evaluated at specific ages: • Gross motor • Fine motor • Social/emotional behavior • Language
By the End of 3 months Motor- raises head/chest, supports upper body when on stomach Opens and shuts hands Pushes down on legs when on firm surface Brings hand to mouth Social/Emotional- Develops social smile (1 month) Enjoys being with others Imitates facial expressions Language(Vision/Hearing/Speech)- Watches faces intently Follows objects Babbles Turns head in direction of sound Important Milestones • Red Flags • Not responding to loud noises • Cannot support head by 3 months • No smile by 3 months • Crosses eyes most of time • Loss of prior milestones
Important Milestones • By the End of 7 months • Motor- • Rolls both ways • Sits with, & then without, support • Transfers hand to hand • Rakes objects • Social/Emotional- • Social play • Interested in mirror/other babies • Explores with hand and mouth • Language (Vision/Hearing/Speech)- • Responds to name • Responds to “no” sometimes • Babbles in chains • Develops color vision • Can track objects well • Red Flags • Seems stiff/tight muscles • Seems floppy/ ragdoll-like • Refuses to cuddle • Doesn’t respond to sounds • One eye turning in/out consistently • No rolling by 5 months • Can’t tripod by 6 months/can’t sit alone by 7-8 months • No babbling by 7 months • Loss of prior milestones
Important Milestones • By the End of 12 months • Gross Motor- • Sits alone well • Creeps/crawls • Pulls to stand • Walks holding on • Stands for second with support • Fine Motor • Uses pincer grasp • Bangs objects together/may stack 2 blocks • Tries to scribble • Social/Emotional- • Shy with strangers • Preferences emerge (in foods/toys) • Looks at correct pictures • Finger-feeds • Imitates actions (brush hair, dial phone, etc.) • Language (Vision/Hearing/Speech)- • Responds to “no” • Responds to simple requests • Says “dada” “mama” • exclamations • Begins to Imitate words • Red Flags • Not able to sit alone easily • Drags body while crawling • Can’t stand with support • Does not search for hidden objects • Says no words • Doesn’t use gestures • No pointing to objects • Loss of prior milestones
Important Milestones • By the End of 24 months • Gross Motor- • Walks alone • Can carry toys while walking • Begins to run • Kicks a ball • Climbs onto furniture alone • Walks up stairs with support • Fine Motor- • Scribbles • Builds tower of 4 blocks • Begins to have hand preference • Social/Emotional- • Starts independence/defiant behavior • Imitates behaviors • Make-believe play • Finds hidden objects easily • Language (Vision/Hearing/Speech)- • Points to object when it is named • Says single words by 15-18 months • Uses simple phrases by 24 months • Follows simple instructions • Repeats words • Red Flags • Can’t walk by 18 months • Doesn’t speak at least 15 words • Doesn’t use 2 word sentences by age 2 • By 15 months, doesn’t know function of common household objects (brush, spoon, telephone) • Doesn’t follow simple instructions • Can’t push a wheeled toy by age 2 • Walks only on toes • Loss of milestones
Important Milestones • Language (Vision/Hearing/Speech)- • Correctly names at least 4 colors • Can count to 10 or more • Recalls parts of stories • Concept of time improved • Uses future tense • Knows full name and address • Speaks 5 word sentences (or more) • Red Flags • Acts very fearful, timid, or aggressive • Easily distracted • Doesn’t play with other children • Rarely uses pretend play • Often unhappy, passive or aloof • Doesn’t know first and last name • Doesn’t use plurals or past tense • Can’t brush teeth, wash hands • Holds pencil uncomfortably • Loss of milestones • By the End of 5 years • Gross Motor- • Hops, climbs, swings easily • Stands one foot >10sec • May skip • Early coordinated sports • Fine Motor- • Copies triangles • Draws 6-8 part person • Prints letters OK • Uses utensils well • Dresses without help • Fully toilet trained • Social/Emotional- • Can agree & follow rules • Likes to sing, dance, act • Aware of gender • Can distinguish fantasy & reality better • Very independent
Rooting • When baby's cheek is stroked at the corner of her mouth, her head will turn toward finger and she will make sucking motions.
Grasp • Pressing one of the baby’s palms causes fingers to grasp.
Babinski • Baby's foot is stroked from heel toward the toes. The big toe lifts up, while the others fan out.
Stepping • Holding baby upright with feet touching a solid surface and moving him forward elicits stepping movements.
Babkin • When both of baby's palms are pressed, her eyes will close, mouth will open and her head will turn to one side.
Observation vs. Experimentation • Our goal is to create causal theories that explain how real children develop. • Unfortunately, the two key components of this goal are in logical conflict. • To understand causality, we must be able to test behavior under carefully controlled (hence artificial) conditions. • If we observe in more natural conditions, we forfeit control.
Infants prefer this one. 1) Discrimination. 2) Preference forcomplexity. A simpler way • Robert Fantz noted that: • Infants look at things • Infants look at some things more than others • Fantz (1958) presented infants with two things to look at:
Observation vs. Experimentation, redux • Naturalistic observation allowed researchers to establish norms for basic milestones of physical & behavioral growth. • BUT observation alone is very limited in explanatory power – cannot probe behavior to uncover its mental foundations. • Experimentation (especially w/infants) provides compelling vistas on children’s thinking and has provided radically new views on infants’ and children’s cognitive capacities and functioning.
