writing centers: an overview

1. STARTING FROM SCRATCH: Building Writing Centers in TaiwanTomTruesdell, M.A.Director of Academic SupportNorthwestern (IA) College

2. writing centers: an overview Learning relies on inherent connections between discovery and conversation. These connections, which often occur through writing, enable students to reach more informed understandings. By signifying that writing is an essential communicative and learning tool, writing centers have become an essential component of post-secondary education. Writing centers foster a unique, collaborative learning experience that differs from the often hierarchical nature of the traditional classroom.

3. WRITINGCENTERHISTORY

4. Writing Centers: A history Writing centers have been part of American higher education since the 1930s and have undergone numerous redefinitions in responding to the dominant paradigms of writing instruction in the 20th and 21st centuries. Writing centers emerged while the conservative model for education was at its high point. Text was viewed as a product. Thus, centers were viewed as sites for diagnosing and removing language deficiencies. Writing centers were pushed to the margins of the academy as supplemental (or expendable) instruction.

5. Writing Centers: A history In the mid-1970s, America experienced another “literacy crisis” and “back-to-the-basics” movement, which led to the formation of a large majority of writing centers at the college level. With no preparation and few notions of what a writing center might be, new directors stepped in and created centers as the students poured in. Writing centers were viewed as useful, but they were still marginalized. So, while the first stage of writing center history was marked by marginalization, the second stage was marked by efforts to attain legitimacy. Centers wanted to be recognized as sites of writing instruction that were just as effective (if not more so) than the classroom.

6. Writing Centers: A history The evolution of composition theory and the creation of writing center theory in the 1980s helped centers achieve legitimacy. Legitimacy was also attained through the formation of the International Writing Centers Association (IWCA) in 1983 . Legitimacy was also attained through writing center publications.

7. Writing Centers Today Currently, there are over 1000 writing centers in American and Canadian postsecondary schools and hundreds at the secondary level. The most vigorous growth is in American high schools. There is also growth in European postsecondary schools. Very few, if any, exist in Asia. Centers are generally recognized as a necessary component of writing programs. They have established their academic credentials and are supported by their institutions. Only a few still function as “grammar shops.”

8. Writing Centers Today Writing centers still find themselves growing and changing directions to fit a diversity of interests. Their flexibility in meeting new needs and their willingness to respond to new challenges cause writing centers to reach out and continually try new programs. Writing centers rarely stay the same from year to year. Services typically include: tutoring, workshops, resource libraries of books and handouts, word processing, self-instruction in computer-assisted-instruction (CAI), writing assessment, grammar hotlines, conversation groups for ESL students, writing contests, tutor practicums and courses. While most writing centers work only with writing skills, some also offer help with reading, study, and/or oral communication skills. Most writing centers exist within English departments, but others are part of larger learning skills centers or academic support services.

9. WRITINGCENTERTHEORY

10. Why do Writing Centers Work?

11. Composition Theory Stage-Model Theory Also referred to as current-traditional theory. Sees the writing process as linear and static: Prewriting, Writing, Revision Writing Centers viewed as sites of remediation

12. Composition Theory Process Theory Looked “beyond an examination of written texts to inquire into the nature of composing itself” (Perl xi). 1) Cognitivism: Used protocol analysis and other research strategies to identify the mental processes writers use when composing. Writing is a recursive, and not linear, process. 2) Expressivism: Concerned with enabling the writer to discover “their inner, true voice.” Consider writing as a process of discovery through language. Writing needs to be personal, engaging, and meaningful. Writing Centers: As a result of this pedagogical shift, the role of writing centers began to change. Instead of focusing on the product, centers adopted an orthodoxy that focused on the writer.

13. Composition Theory Social Contructionism Social constructionist (or social-epistemist) theory criticizes the inner-directed nature of process theory because it ignores the public or social component of writing. While process and stage-model theory views the writer as a solitary, secluded agent, the social constructionist model claims that writers both inform and are informed by others.

14. Writing Center Theory The impact of social constructionism on writing centers and writing center theory cannot be overstated. By recognizing the role of the social in the composing process, many theorists began arguing that writing centers were invaluable components of writing instruction. They specifically argued that writing centers challenged academia’s hierarchal pedagogy by providing a social and collaborative learning environment.

15. Kenneth Bruffee Writing center orthodoxy is largely based on the theoretical arguments of Kenneth Bruffee. Citing Michael Oakeshott and Lev Vygotsky’s claims that thought is actually internalized conversation, Bruffee argues that people learn to think by learning to talk. Consequently, improved conversation is imperative to improved thought For Bruffee, then, writing is a displaced form of conversation – thought is internalized conversation, while writing is thought re-externalized. Because of this, writers should be encouraged to engage in conversation during the writing process as much as possible. If they are involved in conversation, Bruffee argues that writers will be able to master normal discourse, and thus participate – to understand and be understood – in the conversation of particular knowledge communities in both the academic and professional worlds.

16. Kenneth Bruffee In many ways, Bruffee’s argument echoes David Bartholomae’s claim that students must approximate the specialized discourse of the academy, or invent the university. Pedagogically, then, Bartholomae claims that teachers must determine academic discourse conventions so they can be “demystified” and taught in the classroom. In other words, teachers must show students how to write for the academy. Bruffee, however, does not believe that teachers should show students how to write. Instead, he argues that the traditional classroom does not effectively help students become members of knowledge communities because it is hierarchical, and not collaborative, in nature. In the classroom, knowledge is not created by a community of peers, but is instead handed down to the students from the teacher. This is why Bruffee is such a strong proponent of peer tutoring—he believes it is valuable “because it provides the kind of social context, the kind of community, in which normal discourse occurs: a community of knowledgeable peers.” Ideally, peer tutoring models the conversation of knowledge communities by providing a place where all members participate, and contribute, equally.

17. Minimalist Tutoring Many writing center theorists have used Bruffee’s argument to claim that a minimalist, or non-directive, tutoring approach is the best way to create peer conversation. In minimalist tutoring, tutors are encouraged to have confidence-building, collaborative exchanges with the writers they serve. In other words, a tutor is not supposed to be an editor who simply tells the writer what is wrong with a paper and how to fix it. Tutors strive to make the writer do as much of the thinking and work as possible in a session through the use of open-ended, exploratory questions. These questions help ensure that the writer, and not the tutor, is the primary agent in a session. Brooks, Jeff. “Minimalist Tutoring: Making the Student Do All the Work.” Writing Lab Newsletter 15.6 (1991): 1-4.

18. Directive vs. Non-Directive Tutoring While current writing center orthodoxy tends to favor a minimalist approach, some theorists express reservations with this methodology. They argue that a directive approach can be just as effective, if not more so, than a non-directive approach because it shows or models the normal discourse for the writer. In other words, once writers are shown how to do something, they will be able to express themselves more effectively because they better understand the discourse expectations of a particular knowledge community: That said, most theorists do not believe a directive approach should be used uniformly. Instead, they argue that writing center practices should be broadened to include both directive and non-directive tutoring, resulting in “an enrichment of tutoring repertoires, stronger connections between the writing center and writers in other disciplines, and increased attention to the cognitive, social, and rhetorical needs of writers at all stages of development.”

19. Why do Writing Centers Work? • Writing Centers work because they foster relationships. Ideally, writing is best taught in a one-to-one setting. • They also work because they encourage conversations about writing (through continual feedback).

20. Starting from Scratch:Building Writing Centers in Taiwan

21. Location: Physical • The Writing Center’s physical location is important for both pragmatic and symbolic reasons. It will determine the type and number of students that use the Writing Center . • Try to locate the Writing Center in a classroom building or library. Ideally, you want to be located in buildings where your constituents go to class or study. • Eventually consider satellite sites (i.e. tutoring in residence halls, student unions, etc.)

22. Location: Political Where should the Writing Center be located politically? • English Department • Academic Support • Sole Entity From my perception, it might be best, and most feasible to locate the center in the English Department.

23. Director Status • The political location of the center will impact the status of your director. • IWCA recommends the directorship be a professional position that requires specialized preparation and administrative experience. It should carry the same rights and responsibilities as other faculty positions. • They oppose the hiring of part-time faculty as directors unless they are given full access to the rights, privileges, and services available to regular faculty. They also oppose the practice of establishing temporary directorships and filling them with temporary or unprepared personnel. • Also consider if assistant directors or graduate assistants will be needed. • http://writingcenters.org/resources/starting-a-writing-center/

24. Tutors • Who is going to tutor in your center? • Most writing centers employ undergraduate tutors, but some also have graduate and professional tutors. • Graduate and professional tutors may have more writing/teaching experience, but they are not peers. They also cost more to employ.

25. Tutor Training • Training is essential. Your tutors need to receive support, and they need to be reflective practitioners. • Consider offering a for-credit Writing Center Theory and Pedagogy (or responding to student writing) course. Such a course provides the continual training and support tutors need to meet the varied demands of responding to student writing. It also encourages tutors to conduct research and produce scholarship.

26. Tutor Observations • Give your tutors autonomy, but also make sure you are accessible if they have questions. • Tutor observations are a great way to make sure tutors are effective. Observe a session and conference with them afterwards. Ask them how they think the conference went before commenting yourself.

27. Other Services • Workshops • In-Class Tutoring • Handouts/Resources • Test Prep (e.g. TOEFL Exams)

28. Technology • Website/Online Writing Labs (OWLs): http://www.nwciowa.edu/writingcenter/ • Online Tutoring: • Asynchronic • Synchronic

29. Outreach • Outreach is essential, especially for new centers. • You want to publicize directly to students, but more importantly, you need to build bridges with faculty members. • Try to schedule in-class orientations. • You need to educate teachers and students on what Writing Centers do (i.e. focus on writer and not text)

30. Statistics/Record Keeping • Appointment Software: • AccuTrack(http://www.accutrack.org/about/) • Tutortrac(http://www.tutortrac.com/) • Session Forms: http://intranet.nwciowa.edu/tutorform/ • Assessment: Assess your center. Survey students, faculty, and tutors.

31. How do Writing Centers Function? • Writing Centers function in a variety of ways. Because each center is uniquely situated, there is no “one” way to administer a writing center. • However, successful centers carefully consider the aforementioned issues. • Successful centers always strive to make better writers, not necessarily better papers.

32. Basic Steps for Starting a Writing Center • Visit other writing centers. Look for a variety of systems and approaches. • Read the writing center readings on the IWCA site, and the basic literature including The Writing Center Resource Manual from IWCA Press. • Join a regional and the International Writing Centers Association, meet the members, and ask as many questions as you can. • Subscribe to The Writing Center Journal and the Writing Lab Newsletter. • If possible, join WCenter, the electronic conference devoted to discussion of writing center practice and theory. • Write a goals and purposes statement for the center to clarify how your center will fit into your school’s structures and mission. • List the goals for a period of several years so you are sure of what you will aim for each year of operation.

33. WHY A WRITING CENTER? • FEEDBACK: Writing centers provide substantial, individualized feedback to student writers, a service that even the most dedicated professors cannot provide because of logistical constraints. • TUTOR DEVELOPMENT: The benefits of tutoring in a writing center are clear—through their training and interaction with both writers and each other, peer tutors learn how to effectively listen and communicate. Many tutors claim that working in a writing center has helped them improve their analytical and communication skills just as much, if not more so, than any college course. • SCHOLARSHIP: Because the writing center field is student-focused, peer tutors have ample opportunities to publish and present. Furthermore, faculty and graduate students can use writing centers as sites for research in composition and pedagogical theory. • WRITING-ACROSS-THE-CURRICULUM (WAC): Writing centers play an integral role in effective WAC programs. In addition to responding to all types of writing, the writing center can aid WAC programs by helping faculty integrate writing into their courses. 5) CELEBRATION: Writing centers are places where writing is celebrated. Too often, writing is viewed as a necessary, mundane task. Through public readings, guest speakers, symposiums, panels, presentations, and personal testimonies on writing, writing centers can help students and faculty recognize how empowering, and enjoyable, writing can be.

34. WRITINGCENTER RESOURCES

35. Resources: Books • Barnett, Robert and Jacob Blummer, eds. The Allyn and Bacon Guide to Writing Center Theory. Boston: Allyn and Bacon, 2001. • Bruce, Shanti and Ben Rafoth, eds. ESL Writers: A Guide for Writing Center Tutors. Portsmouth, NH: Boynton/Cook, 2004. • Gillespie, Paula and Neal Lerner. The Allyn and Bacon Guide to Peer Tutoring. 2nd ed. Boston: Allyn and Bacon: 2003. • Harris, Muriel. Teaching One-to-One: The Writing Conference. Urbana: National Council of Teachers of English, 1986. • Myers-Breslin, Linda, ed. Administrative Problem-Solving for Writing Programs and Writing Centers: Scenarios in Effective Program Management. Urbana: National Council of Teachers of English, 1999. • Murphy, Christina and Byron Stay, eds. The Writing Center Director’s Resources Book. Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum, 2006. • Murphy, Christina and Joe Law, eds. Landmark Essays on Writing Centers. Davis, CA: Hermagoras Press, 1995. • Olson, Gary, ed. Writing Centers: Theory and Administration. Urbana: NCTE, 1984. • Rafoth, Ben, ed. A Tutor’s Guide: Helping Writers One To One. 2nd ed. Portsmouth, NH: Boynton/Cook, 2005.

36. Resources: Journals • The Writing Lab Newsletter • The Writing Center Journal • The IWCA Update • Praxis: A Writing Center Journal (http://projects.uwc.utexas.edu/praxis/)

37. Resources: Online • International Writing Centers Association (IWCA): http://writingcenters.org/ • WCenter Listserv: http://writingcenters.org/resources/writing-center-directors/#Mail • Purdue OWL:http://owl.english.purdue.edu/

38. Northwestern College • Do not hesitate to contact me with questions about writing or writing centers. • Both myself and Northwestern College want to continue our relationship with you.

39. Bibliography Ashton-Jones, Evelyn. “Asking the Right Questions: A Heuristic for Tutors.” Writing Center Journal 9.1 (Fall/Winter 1998): 29-36. Brooks, Jeff. “Minimalist Tutoring: Making the Student Do All the Work.” The Allyn and Bacon Guide to Writing Center Theory. Ed. Robert W. Barnett and Jacob S. Blummer. Allyn and Bacon, 2001. 219-224. Bruffee, Kenneth A.: “Peer Tutoring and the ‘Conversation of Mankind.’” Writing Centers: Theory and Administration. Ed. Gary A. Olson. Urbana: NCTE, 1984. 3-15. Carino, Peter. “What Do We Talk About When We Talk About our Metaphors: A Cultural Critique of Clinic, Lab, and Center.” The Writing Center Journal 13.1 (1992): 31-42. Cooper, Marilyn. “Really Useful Knowledge: A Cultural Studies Agenda for Writing Centers.” The Writing Center Journal 14.2 (1994): 97-111. Ede, Lisa. “Writing as a Social Process: A Theoretical Foundation for Writing Centers?” The Writing Center Journal 9.2 (1989): 3-13. Harris, Muriel. “What’s Up and What’s In: Trends and Traditions in Writing Centers.” The Writing Center Journal 11.1 (1990): 15-25. Kelly, Lou. “One-on-One, Iowa City Style: Fifty Years of Individualized Instruction in Writing.” The Writing Center Journal 1.1 (1980): 4-19. Lunsford, Andrea. “Collaboration, Control, and the Idea of a Writing Center.” The Writing Center Journal 12.1 (1991): 3-10. Moore, Robert H. “The Writing Clinic and the Writing Laboratory.” College English 11 (1950): 388-93. Murphy, Christina. “Writing Centers in Context: Responding to Current Education al Theory.” The Writing Center: New Directions. Eds. Ray Wallace and Jeanne Simpson. New York: Garland, 1991. 276-88. Murphy, Christina and Joe Law. “Introduction.” Landmark Essays on Writing Centers. Davis, CA: Hermagoras Press, 1995. xi-xv. North, Stephen M. “The Idea of a Writing Center.” College English 46 (1984) : 433-46. Shamoon, Linda K., and Deborah H. Burns. “A Critique of Pure Tutoring.” The Allyn and Bacon Guide to Writing Center Theory. Ed. Robert W. Barnett and Jacob S. Blummer. Allyn and Bacon, 2001. 225-241. Simpson, Jeanne. “Position Statement on Professional Concerns of Writing Center Directors.” International Writing Centers Association. 2008. 4 Nov. 2008 <http://writingcenters.org/resources/starting-a-writing-center/>.