Lexical Semantics. An Introduction

1. Lexical Semantics. An Introduction Boris Iomdin Russian Language Institute,Russian Academy of Sciences iomdin@ruslang.ru

2. Lecture 10. Plan • Speech polysemy and language polysemy • Polysemy and homonymy • Types of polysemy: chaining, radial • Types of meaning shifts: metaphor, metonymy • Types of semantic unity • Principles of dividing words into lexemes • A lexeme and its use • Types of regular polysemy

3. One word, many meanings? • Speech polysemy • Different referents • Different backgrounds of the hearer • Different attitudes of the speaker • … • Language polysemy

4. Noah and the snakes • All the animals are leaving the ark after the flood subsides and Noah is wishing them well as they walk down, saying “Go forth and multiply”.  • Two snakes come slithering by and Noah says the same thing but they reply, “We can't, we are adders”. • Instantly, Noah quips back: “In your case do it by logs”.

5. Polysemy and homonymy Proposed criteria for establishing homonymy: • different grammatical features: to arm 1 – an arm 2 • different derivates:to type 1 – typist, typesetting, typography atype2 – typical, typology • different transformationsHe lies skillfully = He is a skillful liarHe lies on the bed sleeping ≠ He is a sleeping liar • uniquecombination of sensesball 1: ‘a round object used in games’ball 2: ‘a large gathering for dances’

6. Polysemy: a definition • Word A is polysemous if for each two of its senses ai and aj it has senses a1, a2, …, ak-1, ak such that ai is similar to a1, a1 is similar to a2, …, ak-1 is similar to ak and ak is similar to aj • Senses are similar if their explications share a non-trivial part (semantic component) which plays the same role in the explication • A trivial shared component: bank 1 ‘shore’ and bank 2 ‘financial institution’ are objects

7. Types of polysemy Chain Radial a1 a2 a3 a2 a3 a5 a1 a4

8. Chaining polysemy • chair 1 ‘a seat for one person’: table and chairs • chair 2 ‘an authority’: chair of linguistics • chair 3 ‘head of an authority’: chair of jury chair 1 chair 2 chair 3

9. Radial polysemy • cup 1 ‘a drinking vessel’: cup and saucer • cup 2 ‘contents of a drinking vessel’: one cup of tea • cup 3 ‘a prize’: golden cup • cup 4 ‘the symbol ∪’ cup 1 ∪ cup 2 cup 3 cup 4

10. Main types of meaning shifts • Metaphor • Metonymy

11. Metaphor • Denoting an object A using the name of an object B,if A and B are to a certain extent similar, transferring some semantic properties from one domain into another • current 1 ‘moving water’ • current 2 ‘electric flow’ shared component: ‘constant movement’ • mouse 1 ‘a small grey rodent’ • mouse 2 ‘a small peripheral device for a computer’ shared components: ‘small’, ‘long tail’, ‘moving fast’

12. Metonymy • Denoting an object A using the name of an object B,if B is part of A (synecdoche) or is somehow contiguous to A, shifting some semantic properties within the same domain • press 1 ‘action of pressing’ • press 2 ‘an apparatus for printing’ • press 3 ‘journalism’ press 1 is performed by press 2, press 3 is product of press 2 • Prague is a very beautiful city • Prague finally signed the Lisbon treaty

13. Metaphor and metonymy in radial shifts

14. Metaphor and metonymy in chaining shifts

15. Main questions of polysemy • What is the base for the semantic unity of a polysemous word? • How should a polysemous word be divided into different senses (=lexemes)?

16. Types of semantic unity • The explications of both lexemes contain identical semantic components • The explications of both lexemes contain elements that appear to have identical semantic components if reduced to a lower level of description • The explications of both lexemes have two different components that regularly come up in two lexemes of polysemous words • The structure of the situations described by both lexemes is identical or similar

17. Principles of dividing lexemes • Two uses of a word are two different lexemes, if (1) one or more of their features are different and (2) none of these different features can be obtained from another feature by a simple rule • Features of lexemes to be compared: • semantic • pragmatic • communicative • syntactic • morphological • etc.

18. Two lexemes or one? A test • He carried a light and the responsibility for his men. • You held your breath and the door for me. • You are free to execute your laws or your citizens. If two uses, when combined, form a pun, then they belong to two different lexemes

19. Two lexemes or two uses? • A use of a lexeme is its shifted usage different from the prototypical one in at least two correlated features which can be obtained from the prototypical usage using a productive rule

20. Uses of wait • Prototypical usage: X is waiting for Y in Z at T =‘Knowing or believing that an event Y concerning X must or may happen in a place Z, at a time period TX is ready for Y; usually X is in T and wants Y to happen’: I am waiting for the lecture in room S8 • Shifted use: I am waiting for the New Year • Correlated features: • Y is a time moment • X does not have to be in a certain place

21. Holistic uses • John loaded boxes onto the wagon • John loaded the wagon with boxes • Jessica sprayed paint onto the wall • Jessica sprayed the wall with paint • Prototypical usage: ‘to put objects Y or substance Y into a container Z’ • Shifted use: ‘to put objects Y or substance Y into a container Z, so that Z is full with Y’ • Correlated features: • Z is the object, Y is used with preposition with • component Z is full with Y is added

22. Criteria for ordering lexemes • Completeness of grammatical patterns • Number of paradigmatic semantic links (synonyms, antonyms, analogues, derivates, …) • Number of metaphorical and metonymical derivates • Place in the semantic structure of the language (number of related semantic classes) • Place in the formal classification of predicates • Pragmatic value • Number of idioms

23. Regular polysemy types. Nouns • ‘Action’ – ‘Subject of action’: to ensure security – the security caught a burglar • ‘Action’ – ‘Object of action’: the choice of a present was difficult – what’s your choice? • ‘Action’ – ‘Instrument of action’: she took a long shower – the shower fell and broke • ‘Action’ – ‘Place of action’: exit of troops – stop at the next exit • ‘Action’ – ‘Moment of action’: a long friendly lunch – he came at lunch

24. Regular polysemy types. Nouns • ‘Property’ – ‘Subject of property’: he has a talent for music – your son is a real talent • ‘State’ – ‘Cause of state’: he felt delight – the performance was a delight • ‘Plant’ – ‘Fruit of plant’: I planted strawberry – ice cream with strawberry • ‘Tree’ – ‘Wood’: an oak near the house – an oak table • ‘Material’ – ‘Product’: glass is very fragile – exhibition of Czech glass

25. Regular polysemy types. Nouns • ‘Body part’ – ‘Detail of clothing’: she has a thin waist – the waist of the dress • ‘Container’ – ‘Content’: a crystal glass – he drank a glass of beer • ‘Dance’ – ‘Music’: everyone danced tango – a tango composer • ‘Organization’ – ‘Building’: university founded in 1755 – the roof of the university • ‘Science’ – ‘School subject’: math theories – math is the second lesson today

26. Regular polysemy types. Verbs • ‘To do’ – ‘To cause’: water boils – to boil water • ‘To move’ – ‘To cause movement’: a car drives – to drive a car • ‘To deform’ – ‘To cause’: to dig soil – to dig a hole • ‘To process’ – ‘To cause’: to bake potatoes – to bake a cake • ‘To process’ – ‘To eliminate’: to correct an essay – to correct misprints

27. Regular polysemy types. Verbs • ‘To use as object for depicting’ – ‘To cause’: to draw a young woman – to draw a portrait • ‘To close’ – ‘To bar access to’: to shut a door – to shut a room • ‘To act’ – ‘To be able’: to read a book – my son reads already • ‘To move by means of transport’ – ‘To move by itself’: my friend flew to Norway – his plane flew to Norway • ‘To move’ – ‘To pass’: birds fly – time flies

28. Regular polysemy types. Adjectives • ‘having property X’ – ‘causing property X’: a peaceful old woman – a peaceful hotel • ‘X’ – ‘characteristic for person X’: a courageous man – a courageous act • ‘exceeding norm’ – ‘of high degree’: deep river – deep knowledge • ‘exceeding norm’ – ‘positively valued’: a rich farmer – rich knowledge • ‘less than norm’ – ‘negatively valued’: narrow street – narrow views

29. Next lecture • Semantics and pragmatics. Linguistic and extralinguistic knowledge. Gricean maxims. Speech acts theory.