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The Genetics of Viruses and Bacteria Gene Expression Chapter 17 and Chapter 35. The Genetics of Viruses. Discovery – researchers discovered viruses by studying the TMV (tobacco mosaic virus)
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The Genetics of Viruses and Bacteria Gene Expression Chapter 17 and Chapter 35
The Genetics of Viruses • Discovery – researchers discovered viruses by studying the TMV (tobacco mosaic virus) • Infected sap was sprayed on other plants; Beijerinck concluded that the pathogen was reproducing because the concentration of it was undiluted in each new generation of infected plants, • Stanley crystallized the pathogen known as TMV
The Genetics of Viruses (Continued) • Viral structure • ViralGenomes – include double strand DNA, single stranded DNA, double strand RNA, or single stranded RNA • Linear or circular • May have four genes or several hundred • Capsids and Envelopes • Capsid– protein coat that encloses the viral genome • Rod-shaped, polyhedral, or complex • Composed of small protein spherical subunits call capsomeres • Envelope– membrane that coats viral capsids • Helps virus infect host • Bacteriophages– most complex virus with a icosohedral head; named T1 – T7
The Genetics of Viruses (Continued) • Viral Reproduction • HostRange– virus contain viral proteins that fit into specific cell surface receptor sites of the host • Some ranges may be broad while others are small or even one host ranges • Mechanisms – viruses commandeer their host cell machinery and produce copies of themselves • Patterns of viral genome replication (viral protein production) • DNA to DNA = virus will use hot cells DNA polymerase to copy its DNA genome • RNA to RNA = most host cells do not have an enzyme to copy RNA, the virus cell will carry RNA replicase, an enzyme that uses viral RNA as a template produce complementary RNA • RNA to DNA to RNA – viral cell carries reverse transcriptase, an enzyme that transcribes DNA from an RNA template
The Genetics of Viruses (Continued) • LyticCycle– virulent phages reproduce only by this mechanisms; virulent phages lyse the host cells resulting in host cell death • Phage attaches to cell surface • Viral surface proteins recognize receptor sites of the host cell • Phage contract sheath and inject viral genome • ATP stored in phage tailpiece powers contraction • Capsid ghost is left behind; capsid with no genetic material present • Hydrolytic enzymes destroy host cell’s DNA • Host cell transcribes then translates viral proteins
Phage genome directs the host cell to produce phage components: DNA and capsid proteins • Using nucleotides from its degraded genome, the host cell makes copies of the phage genome • Host assembles tail fibers, phage tails, and polyhedral heads • Phage components assemble spontaneously through weak hydrogen bond interactions • Cell lyses and releases phage particles • Lysozymes specified by the viral genome digest bacteria cell wall • Lytic cycle takes 20–30 minutes and may increase the population a hundredfold
The Genetics of Viruses (Continued) • LysogenicCycle– coexistence of host and phage • Viral replication where the viral genome becomes incorporated into the bacterial genome • Phage binds to bacteria surface • Phage injects DNA into host • DNA forms a circle and either begins lytic or lysogenic cycle • DNA crosses over into the bacterial DNA and becomes a prophage • Prophagegenes are copied along with bacteria genome. As cell divides the prophage is passed to each new daughter cell • LysogenicCell– host cell carrying a prophage in its chromosome • Excision (exiting) of the prophage from the bacteria chromosome may begin the lytic cell
The Genetics of Viruses (Continued) • Animal Viruses • Provirus – viral DNA that inserts into a host cell chromosome (animals chromosome) • Retrovirus – RNA virus that uses reverse transcriptase to transcribe DNA from the viral RNA (HIV) • EmergingViruses – make a sudden impact; most likely an existing virus that has expanded its host range
The Genetics of Bacteria • Bacterial chromosome is a circular, double stranded DNA found in the nucleoid region • Plasmids – extra chromosomal units found in most bacteria that contain extra genes (double stranded rings) • BinaryFission – reproduction preceded by DNA replication
GeneticRecombination – gene transfer between bacteria and other sources of DNA • Transformation – gene transfer during which a bacterial cell assimilates foreign (naked) DNA from its surroundings (Avery’s experiment, chapter 16) • Transduction – gene transfer from one bacteria to another by a bacteriophages • Host cell DNA is packaged along with phage DNA during the lytic cycle and that phage infects another a host
Conjugation – direct transfer of genes between two cells that are temporarily joined via a sex pilli (ability to form sex pilli is found in the genes of the F plasmid) • Characteristics of Plasmids • Contain a few genes, not necessary for survival • Replicate independently or in synchrony of the bacterial chromosome • No extracellular stage, unlike viruses • F plasmid – “fertility” plasmid consisting of 25 genes which are involved in production of sex pilli • Replicates in synchrony of the bacterial chromosome • Each daughter cell will be F+ • R plasmid – “resistance” plasmid carrying up to ten genes fro antibiotic resistance • Increased antibiotic use has produced many pathogenic resistant strains of bacteria
Transposons – pieces of DNA that move from different locations on the chromosome (McClintock, 1940’s) • Causes mutations by interrupting the transcription of mRNA, and therefore, disrupting the translation of that protein • Increase/decrease protein production by inserting within a regulatory gene sequence that controls transcription rates
Control of Gene Expression • Operon – a system that allows for the turning on or the turning off of metabolic activites • Operator – the DNA switch found within the promoter region • Repressor – protein that may shut the operon down by binding to the operator so the RNA polymerase can not bind to the promoter to transcribe RNA • Product of a regulator gene
Control of Gene Expression (Continued) • TRPOperon – regulates the production of repressible enzymes by producing the amino acid tryptophan • Five genes encode the polypeptides that make the enzymes • When “on”, RNA polymerase binds to the DNA and transcribes the gene’s; inactive repressor; no tryptophan present • When “off”, tryptophan (corepressor) binds to the inactive repressor making it active allowing it to bind to the operator; tryptophan present • When tryptophan is present, it inhibits its own production by activating the repressor
Control of Gene Expression (Continued) • LACOperon – production of enzymes to take up and metabolize lactose • Three genes code for the enzymes necessary to metabolize lactose • When “off”, lactose is absent, repressor will bind to operator stopping the transcription by RNA polymerase to produce the enzymes • When “on”, lactose present, repressor in inactive because of an inducer (allolactose) that will bind to the repressor rendering it inactive • Allolactoseis an isomer of lactose that enters the cell and induces the binding of the active repressor to the operator