BAHAN KAJIAN Mk . MSLPW PRINSIP PENGEMBANGAN WILAYAH REGIONAL DEVELOPMENT smno.pdkl.ppsub.nop2013

1. BAHAN KAJIAN Mk. MSLPW PRINSIP PENGEMBANGAN WILAYAH REGIONAL DEVELOPMENT smno.pdkl.ppsub.nop2013

2. REGIONAL DEVELOPMENT = PENGEMBANGAN WILAYAH Regional development is the provision of aid and other assistance to regions which are less economically developed. Regional development may be domestic or international in nature. The implications and scope of regional development may therefore vary in accordance with the definition of a region, and how the region and its boundaries are perceived internally and externally. TatananRuangKampus UB di Kota Malang Diunduhdari: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Regional_development ………… 20/2/2013

3. Regional science is a field of the social sciences concerned with analytical approaches to problems that are specifically urban, rural, or regional. Kajianpengembanganwilayahmeliputi: Teorilokasiatauekonomispasial, Pemodelanlokasi, Transportation, Analisismigrasi, Gunalahan = landuse urban development, interindustry analysis, environmental and ecological analysis, resource management, Analisiskebijakan urban dan regional, Sisteminformasigeografis Analisis data spasial. In the broadest sense, any social science analysis that has a spatial dimension is embraced by regional scientists. Diunduhdari: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Regional_science ………… 20/2/2013

4. TEORI LOKASI Location theory is concerned with the geographic location of economic activity; it has become an integral part of economic geography, regional science, and spatial economics. Location theory addresses the questions of what economic activities are located where and why. Location theory rests — like microeconomic theory generally — on the assumption that agents act in their own self-interest. Thus firms choose locations that maximize their profits and individuals choose locations that maximize their utility. Diunduhdari: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Location_theory ………… 20/2/2013

5. LANDUSE = GUNA LAHAN Land use is the human use of land. Land use involves the management and modification of natural environment or wilderness into built environment such as fields, pastures, and settlements. It also has been defined as "the arrangements, activities and inputs people undertake in a certain land cover type to produce, change or maintain it" (FAO, 1997a; FAO/UNEP, 1999). Diunduhdari: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Land_use ………… 20/2/2013

6. LANDUSE PLANNING Land-use planning is the term used for a branch of public policy encompassing various disciplines which seek to order and regulate land use in an efficient and ethical way, thus preventing land-use conflicts. Governments use land-use planning to manage the development of land within their jurisdictions. In doing so, the governmental unit can plan for the needs of the community while safeguarding natural resources. To this end, it is the systematic assessment of land and water potential, alternatives for land use, and economic and social conditions in order to select and adopt the best land-use options. Often one element of a comprehensive plan, a land-use plan provides a vision for the future possibilities of development in neighborhoods, districts, cities, or any defined planning area. Diunduhdari: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Land_use_planning ………… 20/2/2013

7. RESOURCES MANAGEMENT In organizational studies, resource management is the efficient and effective deployment of an organization's resources when they are needed. Such resources may include financial resources, inventory, human skills, production resources, or information technology (IT). In conservation, resource management is a set of practices pertaining to maintaining natural systems integrity. Examples of this form of management are air resource management, soil conservation, forestry, wildlife management and water resource management. The broad term for this type of resource management is natural resource management (NRM). Diunduhdari: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Resource_management ………… 20/2/2013

8. NATURAL RESOURCE MANAGEMENT (NRM). Natural resource management refers to the management of natural resources such as land, water, soil, plants and animals, with a particular focus on how management affects the quality of life for both present and future generations (stewardship). Natural resource management deals with managing the way in which people and natural landscapes interact. It brings together land use planning, water management, biodiversity conservation, and the future sustainability of industries like agriculture, mining, tourism, fisheries and forestry. It recognises that people and their livelihoods rely on the health and productivity of our landscapes, and their actions as stewards of the land play a critical role in maintaining this health and productivity. Diunduhdari: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Natural_resource_management ………… 20/2/2013

9. NATURAL RESOURCE MANAGEMENT (NRM). Natural resource management is also congruent with the concept of sustainable development, a scientific principle that forms a basis for sustainable global land management and environmental governance to conserve and preserve natural resources. Natural resource management specifically focuses on a scientific and technical understanding of resources and ecology and the life-supporting capacity of those resources. Environmental management is also similar to natural resource management. In academic contexts, the sociology of natural resources is closely related to, but distinct from, natural resource management. Diunduhdari: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Natural_resource_management ………… 20/2/2013

10. Integrated natural resource management (INRM) A process of managing natural resources in a systematic way, which includes multiple aspects of natural resource use (biophysical, socio-political, and economic) meet production goals of producers and other direct users (e.g., food security, profitability, risk aversion) as well as goals of the wider community (e.g., poverty alleviation, welfare of future generations, environmental conservation). It focuses on sustainability and at the same time tries to incorporate all possible stakeholders from the planning level itself, reducing possible future conflicts. The conceptual basis of INRM has evolved in recent years through the convergence of research in diverse areas such as sustainable land use, participatory planning, integrated watershed management, and adaptive management. INRM is being used extensively and been successful in regional and community based natural management. Diunduhdari: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Natural_resource_management ………… 20/2/2013

11. LAND MANAGEMENT In order to have a sustainable environment, understanding and using appropriate management strategies is important. In terms of understanding, Young emphasises some important points of land management: Comprehending the processes of nature including ecosystem, water, soils Using appropriate and adapting management systems in local situations Cooperation between scientists who have knowledge and resources and local people who have knowledge and skills Diunduhdari: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Natural_resource_management ………… 20/2/2013

12. LAND MANAGEMENT Dale et al. (2000) study has shown that there are five fundamental and helpful ecological principles for the land manager and people who need them. The ecological principles relate to time, place, species, disturbance and the landscape and they interact in many ways. It is suggested that land managers could follow these guidelines: Examine impacts of local decisions in a regional context, and the effects on natural resources. Plan for long-term change and unexpected events. Preserve rare landscape elements and associated species. Avoid land uses that deplete natural resources. Retain large contiguous or connected areas that contain critical habitats. Minimize the introduction and spread of non-native species. Avoid or compensate for the effects of development on ecological processes. Implement land-use and land-management practices that are compatible with the natural potential of the area. Diunduhdari: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Natural_resource_management ………… 20/2/2013

13. LAND ECONOMICS In economics, land comprises all naturally occurring resources whose supply is inherently fixed. Examples are any and all particular geographical locations, mineral deposits, and even geostationary orbit locations and portions of the electromagnetic spectrum. Natural resources are fundamental to the production of all goods, including capital goods. Location values must not be confused with values imparted by fixed capital improvements. In classical economics, land is considered one of the three factors of production (along with capital, and labor). In some cases, land may be merged with capital due to the relatively small importance that land has in industrial and service sectors. Income derived from ownership or control of natural resources is referred to as rent. Diunduhdari: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Land_%28economics%29 ………… 20/2/2013

14. LAND ECONOMICS Land was sometimes defined in classical and neoclassical economics as the "original and indestructible powers of the soil.“ Georgists hold that this implies a perfectly inelastic supply curve (i.e., zero elasticity), suggesting that a land value tax that recovers the rent of land for public purposes would not affect the opportunity cost of using land, but would instead only decrease the value of owning it. This view is supported by evidence that although land can come on and off the market, market inventories of land show if anything an inverse relationship to price (i.e., negative elasticity). As a tangible asset land is represented in accounting as a fixed asset or a capital asset. Diunduhdari: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Land_%28economics%29 ………… 20/2/2013

15. ECONOMIC RENT OF LAND In economics, Economic rent typically describes the difference between the amount paid for the inputs to a production process and the amount that would be paid for those inputs assuming a unitary (or greater) elasticity of supply. Economic rent (which in production analysis is always seen as a cost of inputs) is affected by any production only minimally, if at all. Economic rent is a fact of natural or contrived exclusivity. For labor, economic rent could be created by the existence of guilds or labor unions (e.g. higher pay for workers, where political action creates a scarcity of such workers); for a produced commodity, economic rent may also be due to the legal ownership of a patent (a politically enforced right to the use of a process or ingredient); for operating licenses, it is the cost of permits and licenses that are politically controlled as to their number of licenses regardless of competence and willingness of those who wish to compete in the area being licensed; for most other production including agriculture, economic rent is due to natural scarcity. When economic rent is privatized, the recipient of economic rent is referred to as a rentier. Diunduhdari: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Economic_rent ………… 20/2/2013

16. LAND MARKET Lahanmerupakanbagianpermukaanbumi yang menjaditempataktivitasmanusia. Dalamhalini, lahanmerupakansumberdaya yang bersifatterbatas (aspekscarcity-kelangkaan) yang pentingdalamperekonomian. Keterbatasanlahanmenuntutadanyasuatusistemalokasi yang efektifdanefisiensehinggapenggunaanakanmembawamanfaat paling optimal. Sebagianbesarlahandapatdipergunakanuntukberagamaktivitas, sehinggaterdapatkompetisikepentingandalamkepemilikandan/ataupenggunaanlahan. Karakterrural land market: Terlokalisasi, lokasispesifik. Lahantidakhomogen. Pasartersegmentasi (secarageografis, berdasarbedagunalahan, kepemilikan) Dibutuhkaninformasilokal, adanyaketidakpastiandanresikodarilahan. Perluongkostambahanjualbelilahan (makelar, pajak, biaya survey, dll). Lahanbiasanyadidapatkandarialihtangan non-jual-beli (warisan, pemberianadat), jualbeli, jualbelimelalui broker, jual-belisecaralelang. Diunduhdari: ArniRahmawatiFahmiSholihah / December 12, 2011 / http://blogs.itb.ac.id/sholihah/2011/12/12/land-market/………… 20/2/2013

17. LAND MARKET Adaduajenisnilailahan. Nilaiprivatditentukanolehhargapasar, nilaisosialdipengaruhiolehhargapasardannilaieksternal. Hargapasardipengaruhiolehjumlahkerelaanpembeliuntukmembayardanpenjualuntukmenerimabayaran. Land rent atausewalahanadalahnilaitambahekonomi yang diasosiasikandenganprosesproduksi yang menggunakanlahansebagai input. Kapitalisasilahansendirimunculkarenalahanmerupakanfaktorproduksitetap, adanyakompetisipenggunaanlahan, peningkatanhargalahanseiringpeningkatankualitasataunilaistrategisnya. Menurut Ricardo, kualitaslahanmenentukannilailahan. Lahanberkualitastinggi yang paling langkaakanmemilikihargasewa yang lebihmahalkarenasecaraekonomi, akanlebihmenguntungkan. Menurut von Thunen, jarakdaripusatekonomimenentukansewalahan. Secaratradisional, Von Thunenberupayamenggambarkansuatukotasebagaisuatusistemmandiri yang bergantungkepadasediaandariprodukpertanian yang berlokasidisekitarnya. Von Thunenmengasumsikanbahwapanenprodukpertanianakanberaneka, tergantungkepadajenistanaman, jumlahhasilpanen, sertaongkostransportasidanlokasidarijenispertaniantersebutditanam. Diunduhdari: ArniRahmawatiFahmiSholihah / December 12, 2011 / http://blogs.itb.ac.id/sholihah/2011/12/12/land-market/………… 20/2/2013

18. LAND MARKET Model tradisional Von Thunendikembangkanoleh William Alonso menjadi model penggunaanlahan, hargasewa, intensitaspenggunaanlahan, populasidanpekerjasebagaifungsidarijarakterhadapCentral Business District (CBD) (bid-rent function). Bid-rent functionmerupakanjumlah yang harusdibayaruntuksewalahandalamberbagailokasidenganongkostransportasiberbeda yang memberikannilaikepuasan yang sama yang digambarkandalamsebuahkurvaindifferen. Dalamcontohsederhana, harga (sewa) lahandipusatkotalebihtinggidibandinghargadikawasanpinggirankota. Kawasanstrategisdenganhargatinggidipusatkotabiasamenjadiincaran. Hargasewa yang mahaltersebutmencerminkantuntutanproduktivitastinggi yang biasanyadiakalidenganpembangunanvertikal. Denganbegitu, ongkos (sewa) lahandapatdiimbangidenganpenggunaanlahan yang jauhlebihbesar. Diunduhdari: ArniRahmawatiFahmiSholihah / December 12, 2011 / http://blogs.itb.ac.id/sholihah/2011/12/12/land-market/………… 20/2/2013

19. LAND MARKET Hargalahandapatditingkatkandengancarameningkatkanpertumbuhanekonomisuatuwilayah. Denganbegitu, akanmunculkawasansubcenter (Sub-CBD) dibagianpinggirankota. Pertumbuhanekonomidapatdipacudenganpemberianinsentif. Misalnyaberupapelebaranjaringanjalan, pembuatanjalurtransportasiumum, pembangunanjaringanlistrik-telepon-internet, dll. Contoh: kawasanekonomiGedebage. Sebaliknya, disinsentifsepertilaranganpelebaranjalandimaksudkanuntukmenekanpertumbuhanekonomiwilayah. Contohnya: kawasan Dago Utara menujuLembang yang ditujukansebagaikawasanlindung. Diunduhdari: ArniRahmawatiFahmiSholihah / December 12, 2011 / http://blogs.itb.ac.id/sholihah/2011/12/12/land-market/………… 20/2/2013

20. LAND RENT AND LAND USE Land use is the outcome of the rent-paying ability of different economic functions in urban areas, such as retailing, industry and residence. The optimal location, where accessibility is optimal, is the central business district. Every activities, including rural, would like to be located there, but they do not have the same capacity to afford this optimal location. By overlapping the bid rent curves of all the urban economic activities a concentric land use pattern is created with retailing in the CBD, industry/commercial on the next ring, apartments farther on and then single houses. This representation considers an isotropic space. In the real world a set of physiographic (waterfront, hills, etc.), historical (tourism) and social (race, crime, perception) attributes will influence bid rent curves. When a city grows, more remote locations are being used, making the rent of most accessible places increase, inducing higher densities and productivity. This generally occurs by "expulsing" some activities outside and by attracting more productive activities. Density and rent are closely related. Diunduhdari: http://people.hofstra.edu/geotrans/eng/ch6en/conc6en/landrent.html ………… 20/2/2013

21. LAND RENT AND LAND USE Diunduhdari: http://people.hofstra.edu/geotrans/eng/ch6en/conc6en/landrent.html ………… 20/2/2013

22. Land Rent LokasidanPasarLahan Barlow (1978) menggambarkanhubunganantaranilai land rent danalokasisumberdayalahandiantaraberbagaikompetisipenggunaankegiatansektor yang komersialdanstrategismempunyai land rent yang tinggi, sehinggasektortersebutberadapadakawasanstrategismempunyai land rent yang tinggi, sehinggasektortersebutberadapadakawasanstrategis, sebaliknyasektor yang kurangmempunyainilaikomersialmakanilairentnyasemakinkecil. Land rent diartikansebagailocational rent. Lahantermasukdidalamnyalahansawah, dalamkegiatanproduksimerupakansalahsatufaktorproduksitetap. Barlow mengemukakanbahwanilai rent sumberdayalahandibedakanmenjaditigajenis, yaitu: Sewakontrak (contract rent) Sewalahan (land rent) Nilai rent ekonomidarilahan (Economic rent) Diunduhdari: http://prayudho.wordpress.com/2009/11/05/teori-lokasi/ ………… 25/2/2013

23. ECONOMIC RENT - SEWA EKONOMI Economic rent samadengan surplus ekonomimerupakankelebihannilaiproduksi total diatasbiaya total. Menurut Anwar (1990) suatulahansekurang-kurangnyamemilikiempatjenis rent, yaitu: Ricardian rent, menyangkutfungsikualitasdankelangkaanlahan; Locational rent, menyangkutfungsieksesibilitaslahan; Ecological rent, menyangkutfungsiekologilahan; Sosiological rent, menyangkutfungsisosialdarilahan. Umumnya land rent yang merupakancermindarimekanismepasarhanyamencakupricardian rent danlocational rent, sedangkan ecological rent dansosiological rent tidaksepenuhnyaterjangkaumekanismepasar. Diunduhdari: http://prayudho.wordpress.com/2009/11/05/teori-lokasi/ ………… 25/2/2013

24. HARGA LAHAN = LAHAN SBG ASET EKONOMI Secarafisik, lahanmerupakanasetekonomi yang tidakdipengaruhiolehkemungkinanpenurunannilaidanhargasertatidakdipengaruhiolehfaktorwaktu, secarafisik pula lahanmerupakanaset yang mempunyaiketerbatasandantidakdapatbertambahbesar, misalnyadenganmelaluiusahareklamasi. Lahansecarafisiktidakdapatdipindahkan, walaupunfungsidanpenggunaanlahan (land function and use) dapatberubahtetapilahannyasendiribersifat stationer (tetap). Atasdasarsifatini, ketentuanpenetapanhargalahanakansangatbersifatspesifik yang ditentukanolehpermintaandanpenawaran/persediaan (demand and supply) lahanpadasuatuwilayahtertentu. Faktorlokasidalampenentuanhargalahanuntukberbagaipenggunaantidaksama, pertimbangantataruang. Diunduhdari: http://prayudho.wordpress.com/2009/11/05/teori-lokasi/ ………… 25/2/2013

25. EKONOMI WILAYAH Pertumbuhanekonomiwilayahmerupakanresultantedariberbagaifaktor. Ukuran yang umumdigunakanuntukmenggambarkanpertumbuhanekonomisuatuwilayahadalahpertumbuhanprodukdomestik regional bruto (PDRB) dariwilayah yang bersangkutan. Padadasarnyapertumbuhanekonomisuatuwilayahakanmendorongperubahan yang meningkatpadapermintaanlahanuntukberbagaikebutuhan, sepertipertanian, industri, jasadankegiatanlainnya. Penggunaankonversilahansawahtidakterlepasdarisituasiekonomisecarakeseluruhan. Pertumbuhanekonomi yang tinggimenyebabkanbeberapasektorekonomitumbuhdengancepat. Pertumbuhansektortersebutakanmembutuhkanlahan yang lebihkuas. Apabilalahansawahletaknyalebihdekatdengansumberekonomimakaakanmenggeserpenggunaannyakebentuk lain sepertipemukiman, industrimanufakturdanfasilitasinfrastruktur. Diunduhdari: http://prayudho.wordpress.com/2009/11/05/teori-lokasi/ ………… 25/2/2013

26. SUMBERDAYA LAHAN Land is an essential natural resource, both for the survival and prosperity of humanity, and for the maintenance of all terrestrial ecosystems. The limits on these resources are finite while human demands on them are not. Increased demand, or pressure on land resources, shows up as declining crop production, degradation of land quality and quantity, and competition for land. Attention should now be focused on the role of humankind as stewards rather than exploiters, charged with the responsibility of safeguarding the rights of unborn generations and of conserving land as the basis of the global ecosystem. Diunduhdari: http://www.fao.org/docrep/004/x3810e/x3810e04.htm ………… 25/2/2013

27. SUMBERDAYA LAHAN Land and Land Resources refer to a delineable area of the earth's terrestrial surface, encompassing all attributes of the biosphere immediately above or below this surface, including those of the near-surface climate, the soil and terrain forms, the surface hydrology (including shallow lakes, rivers, marshes and swamps), the near-surface sedimentary layers and associated groundwater and geohydrological reserve, the plant and animal populations, the human settlement pattern and physical results of past and present human activity (terracing, water storage or drainage structures, roads, buildings, etc.) (FAO/UNEP, 1997). Land Use is characterized by the arrangements, activities and inputs by people to produce, change or maintain a certain land cover type. (Di Gregorio and Jansen, 1998). Land use defined in this way establishes a direct link between land cover and the actions of people in their environment. Land Cover is the observed (bio)physical cover on the earth's surface Diunduhdari: http://www.fao.org/docrep/004/x3810e/x3810e04.htm ………… 25/2/2013

28. FUNGSI LAHAN The basic functions of land in supporting human and other terrestrial ecosystems can be summarized as follows: a store of wealth for individuals, groups, or a community production of food, fibre, fuel or other biotic materials for human use provision of biological habitats for plants, animals and micro-organisms co-determinant in the global energy balance and the global hydrological cycle, which provides both a source and a sink for greenhouse gases regulation of the storage and flow of surface water and groundwater storehouse of minerals and raw materials for human use a buffer, filter or modifier for chemical pollutants provision of physical space for settlements, industry and recreation storage and protection of evidence from the historical or pre-historical record (fossils, evidence of past climates, archaeological remains, etc.) enabling or hampering movement of animals, plants and people between one area and another Diunduhdari: ………… 25/2/2013

29. THE SPIRAL: LAND RESOURCES AND PEOPLE'S ACTIVITIES Diunduhdari: http://www.fao.org/docrep/004/x3810e/x3810e04.htm ………… 25/2/2013

30. LAHAN – SUMBERDAYA EKONOMI Land is the economic resource encompassing natural resources found within a national economy. This resource includes timber, land, fisheries, farms and other similar natural resources. Land is usually a limited resource for many economies. Although some natural resources, such as timber, food and animals, are renewable, the physical land is usually a fixed resource. Nations must carefully use their land resource by creating a mix of natural and industrial uses. Using land for industrial purposes allows nations to improve the production processes for turning natural resources into consumer goods. Diunduhdari: http://smallbusiness.chron.com/economic-definition-four-factors-production-3941.html ………… 25/2/2013

31. LAHAN – SUMBERDAYA – INPUT PRODUKSI In economics, the resource that encompasses the natural resources used in production. In classical economics, the three factors of production are land, labour, and capital. Land was considered to be the “original and inexhaustible gift of nature.” In modern economics, it is broadly defined to include all that nature provides, including minerals, forest products, and water and land resources. While many of these are renewable resources, no one considers them “inexhaustible.” The payment to land is called rent. Like land, its definition has been broadened over time to include payment to any productive resource with a relatively fixed supply. Diunduhdari: http://global.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/329078/land ………… 25/2/2013

32. AKSES ATAS LAHAN Access to land: Access to land refers to the ability to use land and other natural resources, to control the resources and to transfer the rights to the land and take advantage of other opportunities. Enhanced access to land: Enhanced access to land includes three main aspects: strengthening land tenure security and land rights increasing the amount of land that people have access to improving the productivity of land Alternatives to enhancing access to land for agriculture include promoting non-farm activities and urbanization. Diunduhdari: http://www.ruralpovertyportal.org/topic/definition/tags/land ………… 25/2/2013

33. LAND TENURE: Land tenure refers to the rules, authorities, institutions, rights and norms that govern access to and control over land and related resources. It defines the rules and rights that govern the appropriation, cultivation and use of natural resources in a given space or piece of land. It governs who can use what resources, for how long and under what conditions. Strictly speaking, it is not the land itself that is owned but the rights and duties related to it. Land tenure systems are highly complex. At national and local levels they include a multiplicity of overlapping (and at times contradictory) rules, laws, customs, traditions, perceptions and regulations that determine how people use, control and transfer land. This has significant implications for the analysis of land tenure issues and their significance in poverty reduction. Diunduhdari: http://www.ruralpovertyportal.org/topic/definition/tags/land ………… 25/2/2013

34. LAND TENURE: In many cases different people would describe the land tenure situation pertaining to a specific parcel of land in very different terms. A government official may see it as public land, owned and controlled by the government or a local council. A local chief, on the other hand, may believe that he is responsible for the piece of land, holding it in trust for his clan or lineage group. The male head of a household who is presently cultivating the land may see it as his, to be inherited one day by his male heirs. Finally, a pastoralist living nearby may see the parcel of land as an area on which he has the rights to graze his cattle during certain months of the year. This example illustrates how government officials, chiefs, farmers and pastoralists could all, perhaps quite legitimately, claim rights to the same piece of land, on the basis of different land tenure laws, customs and regimes. Diunduhdari: http://www.ruralpovertyportal.org/topic/definition/tags/land ………… 25/2/2013

35. LAND TENURE SECURITY • Land tenure security refers to people’s rights to control and manage a parcel of land, using it, disposing of its produce and engaging in transactions, including transfers. • Land tenure security has three main characteristics: • duration – how long will different land rights last? • protection – will land rights be protected if they are challenged or threatened? • robustness – are the holders of land rights able to use the land and dispose of the rights without interference from others? KawasanPermukimandengan status kepemilikanlahan: SetifikatHakMilik Diunduhdari: http://www.ruralpovertyportal.org/topic/definition/tags/land ………… 25/2/2013

36. LANDUSE = GUNA LAHAN Impacts of Land Development on Stream Temperature Land development dramatically alters the way rainfall travels from areas of land to lakes and streams. Land use is the human use of land. Land use involves the management and modification of natural environment or wilderness into built environment such as fields, pastures, and settlements. It also has been defined as "the arrangements, activities and inputs people undertake in a certain land cover type to produce, change or maintain it" (FAO, 1997a; FAO/UNEP, 1999) Diunduhdari: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Land_use ………… 25/2/2013 Diunduhdari: http://troutstreamresearch.safl.umn.edu/ ………… 26/2/2013

37. LANDUSE AND ENVIRONMENTAL EFFECTS Land use and land management practices have a major impact on natural resources including water, soil, nutrients, plants and animals. Land use information can be used to develop solutions for natural resource management issues such as salinity and water quality. For instance, water bodies in a region that has been deforested or having erosion will have different water quality than those in areas that are forested. Forest gardening, a plant-based food production system, is believed to be the oldest form of land use in the world. The major effect of land use on land cover since 1750 has been deforestation of temperate regions. More recent significant effects of land use include urban sprawl, soil erosion, soil degradation, salinization, and desertification. Land-use change, together with use of fossil fuels, are the major anthropogenic sources of carbon dioxide, a dominant greenhouse gas. Diunduhdari: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Land_use………… 25/2/2013

38. EVALUASI EKONOMI LAHAN Economic land evaluation is a method for predicting the micro-economic value of implementing a given land-use system on a given land area. This is a more useful prediction of land performance than a purely physical evaluation, since many land-use decisions are made on the basis of economic value. Measures of economic suitability include the gross margin, net present value, internal rate of return, benefit/cost ratio, and utility functions based on these. The economic value of the in-situ resource quality of a land area may be inferred directly from land characteristics or from Land Qualities which, when less than optimum, result in decreased yields or increased costs. The economic value of geographic land characteristics may be determined by spatial analysis. Single or multi- criteria economic optimisation and risk analysis can extend the economic land evaluation from a natural resource or management unit to a production or planning unit. Computerised tools may be used to assist in economic land evaluation. Diunduhdari: citeseerx.ist.psu.edu ………… 25/2/2013

39. EVALUASI LAHAN Land evaluation may be defined as “all methods to explain or predict the use potential of land” (van Diepen, Van Keulen et al., 1991). In a land evaluation exercise, predictions are made about the expected performance of several different land uses on each land mapping unit in a project area. These predictions should be useful for rational land-use planning (FAO, 1993b) by individuals, collectives, or society. VAN DIEPEN, C.A., VAN KEULEN, H., WOLF, J. & BERKHOUT, J.A.A. 1991. Land evaluation: from intuition to quantification. In: Advances In Soil Science (ed. B.A. Stewart) Springer, New York, pp. 139-204. FAO 1993b. Guidelines for land-use planning. FAO Development Series 1 Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations, Rome, Italy. Diunduhdari: ………… 25/2/2013

40. LUT = LAND UTILISATION TYPE The concept of Land Utilisation Type (LUT) proposed by the FAO explicitly includes the social and economic context in which the land use system is to be applied. The reason for this broad definition of land use becomes clear when we consider the needs of economic land evaluation. Constraints on production factors such as labour and capital affect the feasibility of the LUT. Income expectations of the social groups engaging in a LUT are used to define overall suitability. Social preferences for type of occupation and consumption also help define the set of LUTs to be evaluated. Diunduhdari: ………… 25/2/2013

41. The FAO promoted the use of economic land evaluations, either subsequent to the physical evaluation (the ‘two phase’ approach) or in parallel with it. One of the earliest published applications of the FAO Framework (Young & Goldsmith, 1977) included an economic evaluation, and the textbook of Dent & Young (1981) includes a chapter on the economics of land evaluation. Unfortunately this did not become the rule. There are hardly any published economic land evaluations, and the recent trend seems to be for physical land evaluation only, even in FAO-sponsored projects (FAO, 1993a; Venema & Daink, 1992). A notable exception is from Australia (Johnson & Cramb, 1991; 1992b; 1994), which resulted from an interdisciplinary collaboration between an agronomist (Johnson) and social scientist (Cramb). Volume 2 of their study (Johnson & Cramb, 1992a) is a summary of economic theory applied to land evaluation. DENT, D. & YOUNG, A. 1981. Soil survey and land evaluation. George Allen & Unwin, London, England. FAO 1993a. Agro-ecological assessments for national planning : the example of Kenya. FAO Soils Bulletin 67 Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations, Rome. JOHNSON, A.K.L. & CRAMB, R.A. 1991. Development of a simulation based land evaluation system using crop modelling, expert systems and risk analysis. Soil Use & Management 7, 239-245. JOHNSON, A.K.L. & CRAMB, R.A. 1992a. An integrated approach to agricultural land evaluation: Report to the Land & Water Resources Research and Development Corporation on developing alternative procedures in land evaluation. 2: Economic Considerations in Land Evaluation, Department of Agriculture, the University of Queensland, Queensland, Australia. YOUNG, A. & GOLDSMITH, P.F. 1977. Soil survey and land evaluation in developing countries: a case study in Malawi. Geographical Journal 143, 407-431.

42. A PROCEDURE FOR ECONOMIC LAND EVALUATION The land use capacity (Barlowe, 1986), or in land evaluation terms, the economic suitability (FAO, 1976), of a land area for a land use, may be defined as the value of some economic measure, should the land area be dedicated to the use. This definition begs two others: the type of land area to be evaluated, and the economic measure to be used in the evaluation. It also leaves unspecified the key question: how should the physical land characteristics be costed? So, the land evaluation has five steps: Decide on the land units to be analysed; Decide on the appropriate economic measure; Decide what economic factors to include in the evaluation, and the type of price to use in the analysis; Specify how physical land characteristics affects economic values, perhaps using in situ and geographical Land Qualities; Compute the economic land suitability; Perform a sensitivity analysis to determine the effect of errors in physical factors and model assumptions on land suitability. BARLOWE, R. 1986. Land resource economics: the economics of real estate. Prentice-Hall, Englewood Cliffs, NJ. FAO 1976. A framework for land evaluation. Soils Bulletin 32 Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations, Rome, Italy.

43. Economic land evaluation was tersely described by Dent & Young as follows: “The principle of economic land suitability evaluation is simple: cost the inputs, price the benefits, and calculate the net returns in money terms. … Decisions have to be made … about the manner of pricing, rates of discounting, costs and returns, external factors to be included, and which economic yardsticks to use for interpreting the results. These decisions call for careful judgement, since they have an equal or greater effect on the results than that of [i.e., the decisions concerning] qualities of the land”. (Dent & Young, 1981.) DENT, D. & YOUNG, A. 1981. Soil survey and land evaluation. George Allen & Unwin, London, England. FAO 1976. A framework for land evaluation. Soils Bulletin 32 Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations, Rome, Italy.

44. EVALUATION UNITS Land evaluation attempts to determine the relative fitness of different land areas for different uses. Map units of natural resource inventories: When the evaluation starts with data from a natural resources data base (e.g. a soil survey or climate map), the map unit as shown on the resource map as a single legend class, or as derived from an intersection of several maps (e.g., soil type overlaid with climate type), may be considered sufficiently homogeneous with respect to the land characteristics implied by the legend, and forms the unit of analysis. This has been the usual approach for physical land evaluations based on soil survey interpretations or agro-ecological zones. All delineations of the map unit are considered to be the same, no matter where located, so that only the in-situ characteristics of the map unit, such as natural soil fertility, can be used to determine economic value. Economic results are normalised to a per-unit land area basis. Diunduhdari: citeseerx.ist.psu.edu ………… 25/2/2013

45. EVALUATION UNITS Land evaluation attempts to determine the relative fitness of different land areas for different uses. 2. Map delineations of natural resource inventories: If economic suitability depends on geographical land characteristics, that is, characteristics that depend on the specific location on the earth’s surface, the legend category of a natural resource inventory must be divided into its separate delineations for analysis. Map delineations are individual connected areas of the map unit, and are usually small and compact at the map’s scale. The evaluation can consider the location of the delineation (either its centroid or nearest point) in relation to cultural features such as roads and markets; this is especially important for transport costs. The size and shape of the delineation, as well as topological relations such as adjacency and containment, can also be a land characteristic of economic importance. Economic results are usually normalised to a per unit land area basis. Diunduhdari: citeseerx.ist.psu.edu ………… 25/2/2013

46. EVALUATION UNITS Land evaluation attempts to determine the relative fitness of different land areas for different uses. 3. Management units: A management unit, sometimes called a ‘decision area’, is an area of land that the land manager intends to treat or allocate as a unit, and which can not realistically be subdivided, for example because of improvements such as drainage canals, or because a subdivided unit would be too small to manage. Since each management unit has a unique location, the analysis can include geographic considerations. Management units based on the current land-use pattern, such as fields, are usually less homogeneous with respect to natural resources than map delineations of a natural resource inventory, because the boundaries of natural resources rarely correspond to the boundaries of management units. One way to deal with this heterogeneity within the evaluation unit is to ignore it, and simply use the dominant or most prevalent value of each land characteristic, with a loss of precision in the analysis. Another approach is to define the evaluation unit as a compound unit consisting of several homogeneous constituents in a defined proportion. Each constituent is evaluated separately, and these results are combined in weighted linear proportion to arrive at a result for the management unit as a whole. Diunduhdari: citeseerx.ist.psu.edu ………… 25/2/2013

47. EVALUATION UNITS Land evaluation attempts to determine the relative fitness of different land areas for different uses. 4. Production units: Some economic decisions are taken on a whole-farm (or other production unit) basis. Production units have global objectives (for example, profit maximisation and risk minimisation) and constraints (for example, labour and capital supply) that apply to a production unit considered as a whole, not to the individual management units of which it is made up. In some land use systems, a production unit must contain a defined mixture of several land uses. The usual way to evaluate a production unit is to evaluate each of its management units separately, and then combine these into an aggregate farm plan, considering whole-farm objectives and constraints. Diunduhdari: citeseerx.ist.psu.edu ………… 25/2/2013

48. EVALUATION UNITS Land evaluation attempts to determine the relative fitness of different land areas for different uses. 5. Planning units: In regional or catchment planning, decisions are taken on the whole area, subject to objectives and constraints that are expressed over the entire region. For example, there may be a limited amount of irrigation water available for an entire irrigation district, or a catchment plan may be required to include a set of land uses. Planning units are evaluated like production units. Diunduhdari: citeseerx.ist.psu.edu ………… 25/2/2013

49. MEASURES OF ECONOMIC SUITABILITY There are various ‘yardsticks’ which may be used for economic land suitability evaluation. The chosen measure should correspond to the economic reality faced by decision makers, as well as their values and attitudes towards money and risk. Gross Margin: This is the cash flow in to the LUT, less the cash flow out of the LUT, on a per unit area (normalised) or aggregate (per-field or per-farm) basis, in one accounting period (usually a year). If the gross margin calculation includes the fixed costs of production, it is called the ‘net return’; otherwise the ‘gross return’. This measure does not take into account the time value of money. Capital costs can be ignored altogether by using rental prices. Thus, the gross margin is not sensitive to interest rates, and as such is a good first approximation of financial feasibility. It is an appropriate measure of economic suitability for annual or short-term rotational LUTs with few or no capital costs. Diunduhdari: citeseerx.ist.psu.edu ………… 25/2/2013

50. MEASURES OF ECONOMIC SUITABILITY There are various ‘yardsticks’ which may be used for economic land suitability evaluation. The chosen measure should correspond to the economic reality faced by decision makers, as well as their values and attitudes towards money and risk. 2. Capitalised value: This variant of the gross margin accounts for the time value of money. The annual return from a steady-state investment is a percentage of the total value of the investment determined by the interest rate. So, the total value can be calculated as: EV = GM / IR, where EV is the estate value, GM is the annual gross margin, and IR the interest rate in percent. It is an appropriate measure of economic suitability in the same situations as the gross margin. The capitalised value is an approximation to the portion of the land’s value that can be attributed to its productive capacity. Diunduhdari: citeseerx.ist.psu.edu ………… 25/2/2013